Answers History .docx

23. Revolution 1905 – 1907 In Russia: causes, main events, results.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. Social and political contradictions in Russia sharply worsened, which led to the first revolution in its history of 1905–1907.

Causes of the revolution: indecision of the agrarian-peasant, worker and national issues, autocratic system, complete political lack of rights and lack of democratic freedoms, deterioration of the financial situation of workers due to the economic crisis of 1900 - 1903. and a shameful defeat for tsarism in Russian-Japanese war 1904 – 1905

Tasks of the revolution- the overthrow of the autocracy and the establishment of a democratic system, the elimination of class inequality, the destruction of landownership and the distribution of land to the peasants, the introduction of an 8-hour working day, the achievement of equality of rights for the peoples of Russia.

Workers and peasants, soldiers and sailors, and intellectuals took part in the revolution. Therefore, in terms of goals and composition of participants, it was nationwide and had a bourgeois-democratic character.

The reason for the revolution was Bloody Sunday. January 9, 1905 in St. Petersburg Workers who went to the Tsar with a petition containing a request to improve their financial situation and political demands were shot. 1,200 people were killed and about 5 thousand were wounded. In response, the workers took up arms.

There are several stages in the history of the revolution. First stage (January 9 – end of September 1905)- the beginning and development of the revolution along an ascending line.The second stage (October - December 1905) - the highest rise of the revolution.

The third stage (January 1906 – June 3, 1907) – decline and retreat of the revolution. Main events: political strikes of workers; new scope of the peasant movement.

Revolution 1905 – 1907 was defeated for a number of reasons - the army did not completely go over to the side of the revolution; there was no unity in the working class party; there was no alliance between the working class and the peasantry; revolutionary forces were insufficiently experienced, organized and conscious.

Despite the defeat, the revolution of 1905 - 1907 was of great importance:

Democratic freedoms were introduced, trade unions and legal political parties were allowed;

The financial situation of workers has improved: wages have increased and a 10-hour working day has been introduced;

The peasants achieved the abolition of redemption payments.

First Russian revolution 1905 - 1907 is defined as bourgeois-democratic, since the tasks of the revolution are the overthrow of the autocracy, the elimination of landownership, the destruction of the class system, and the establishment of a democratic republic.

24. P. A. Stolypin’s reforms: their essence, results and consequences.

After the completion of the revolutionary events in Russia, a period of reform began, in which the Minister of Internal Affairs P.A. took an active part. Stolypin. Considering the main reason for stagnation to be conservation peasant community, he directed all his efforts towards its destruction. At the same time, the strengthening of peasant private ownership of land began.

All reforms had to take place with the consent of the autocracy, the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Their ultimate goal there was a change in the balance of class forces in favor of the bourgeoisie, the joining of peasants who, becoming small landowners, were supposed to serve as a support for autocratic power in the countryside. The most important goal reforms - the need to integrate Russia into the world economic system.

The main problem facing rural producers was land hunger in the European part of Russia. The lack of land among the peasantry was explained by the concentration of huge plots in the hands of landowners and the very high population density in the center of the country.

In June 1906, Stolypin began to carry out moderate reforms. The decree of November 9, 1906 allowed the peasant to leave the community. He had the right to demand the consolidation of allotment plots into a single cut or to move to a farm. A fund was created from part of the state, imperial and landowners' lands for sale to peasants. A specially opened peasant bank issued cash loans for purchases.

The Stolypin reform was generally progressive in nature. Having finally buried the remnants of feudalism, it revived bourgeois relationships and gave impetus to the productive forces in the countryside. By 1926, 20-35% of the peasants separated from the community, 10% were established in farmsteads, the specialization of agriculture increased, the area of sown land, the gross harvest of grain and its export.

A significant part of the peasantry, which consisted of middle peasants, was in no hurry to leave the community. The poor left the community, sold their plots and went to the city. 20% of peasants who took out bank loans went bankrupt.

In an effort to transform Russia into a prosperous bourgeois state, Stolypin tried to carry out reforms in various areas(law on civil equality, personal integrity, freedom of religion, on the development of local self-government, on the transformation of the judicial and police systems, national and labor issues).

Almost all of Stolypin's bills were not adopted State Council. His initiatives were not supported by both tsarism and democratic forces. The failure to reform the country predetermined revolutionary events 1917

Education and development of the Russian centralized state

The main reasons for the centralization of Russian lands. The role of the foreign policy factor

Political fragmentation has become a new form of organization of Russian statehood in the conditions of the development of the country’s territory and its further development on the ascending line. Arable farming spread everywhere. Tools were improved: archaeologists count more than 40 types of metal tools used in the economy. Even on the most remote outskirts of the Kyiv state, boyar estates developed. An indicator of economic growth was the growth in the number of cities. In Rus' on the eve of the Mongol invasion there were about 300 cities-centers of highly developed crafts, trade, and culture. The title of Grand Duke was now given not only to the princes of Kyiv, but also to the princes of other Russian lands. Although there was no longer political unity within Rus', the factors of future unification were objectively preserved: common language, one faith, one legislation, common historical roots, the need to defend the country and survive in huge territory with a harsh continental climate, sparse population, infertile soils and no natural boundaries. The idea of the unity of Rus' continued to live in the minds of people, and the experience of joint historical practice only confirmed the need for unity. The appeal of the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” to inner world and agreement in the fight against nomads in those conditions, the alarm sounded like a call for the unity of Rus'.

The struggle of Russian lands and principalities with Mongol conquest and the crusaders in the 13th century. - the next step on the ascending ladder towards the unification of the country. IN early XIII V. V Central Asia in the territory from Lake Baikal and the upper reaches of the Yenisei and Irtysh in the north to the southern regions of the Gobi Desert and the Great Wall of China formed Mongolian state. After the name of one of the tribes that roamed near Lake Buirnur in Mongolia, these peoples were also called Tatars. Subsequently everything nomadic peoples, with whom Rus' fought, began to be called Mongol-Tatars. In 1235, at the khural in the capital of Mongolia, Karakum, a decision was made on an all-Mongol campaign to the West. In Rus' they knew about the impending menacing danger, but princely strife prevented them from uniting forces to repel a strong, insidious enemy. In 1237, Ryazan was the first of the Russian lands to be attacked by invaders. On the sixth day of the siege, Gord was taken. Then all of North-Eastern Rus' was taken. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassalage from the Golden Horde. The continuous struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization.

Crusaders. The attack on Russian lands was part of the predatory doctrine of German chivalry. Crusader invasion Northwestern Rus' was sanctioned by the Pope and German Emperor Frederick II. crusade German, Danish, Norwegian knights and troops from other countries also took part northern countries Europe. The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Rus', which was bleeding in the fight against Mongol conquerors. Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky played a significant role in the defense of the country, winning several brilliant victories on the Neva and on ice Lake Peipsi. The significance of the victory on the Neva is that it stopped Swedish aggression to the east for a long time and preserved Russia’s access to the Baltic coast.

The role of the foreign policy factor.

The Mongol conquest mothballed political fragmentation. It weakened the ties between various parts states. Traditional political and trade relations with other countries. The vector of foreign policy, which ran along the “south-north” line (the fight against the nomadic danger, stable ties with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe) radically changed its direction to “west-east”. The pace has slowed down cultural development Russian lands. Alexander Nevsky understood this well, from 1252 to 1263. Grand Duke Vladimirsky. He set a course for the restoration and growth of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian church, which saw the greatest danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde. Russian Center political life moved to northeastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) and northwestern (Novgorod) Rus'. In this territory. based on Old Russian people The Great Russian (Russian) nationality was taking shape.

The restoration of productive forces and their further development occurred faster in the field of agricultural production: the area of arable land increased, soil cultivation methods were improved, three-field farming became more widespread, although cutting and fallowing were still preserved. Tools began to be used more widely - a plow with iron tips and a plow. Cattle breeding, fishing, and hunting were further developed. Vegetable gardening and gardening expanded.

The rise of agricultural production created favorable conditions for the restoration and further development of Russian cities. The defeat of the old major cities, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc., changes in the nature of economic and trade relations led to the fact that the XIII - XV centuries. New centers have received significant development: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, etc. In these cities, the population increased, stone construction was revived, and the number of artisans and merchants grew. Despite the fact that Golden Horde, Lithuania, Poland, the Genesian Union slowed down and tried to control the foreign trade of Rus', the cities became centers not only of domestic, but also foreign trade. The pride of Rus' played a significant role in the unification process. They were the centers that supported, although still weak, economic ties between in separate parts countries. Character handicraft production and trade relations determined the interest of the townspeople in the unification of the country. This was especially true for the fairly rapidly developing cities around Moscow. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia. M.: 2002. S.-62.

Political centralization of Rus' in the XIII - XV centuries. passed much faster than its economic disunity was overcome. Availability of external

dangers from the east and west, the need to fight for the overthrow of gold Horde yoke, for establishing national independence accelerated this process. The unification of Russian lands into the Russian centralized multinational state took about two and a half centuries.

The beginning of the unification of Russian lands. Reasons for the rise of Moscow

In the 13th century. The center of Russian political life took shape in the territories of northeastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) and northwestern (Novgorod) Rus'. On the lands of Vladimir- Principality of Suzdal happened 14 appanage principalities(Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Tver, Moscow, Pereyaslavl, etc.), in turn, these principalities were divided into even smaller possessions. The rulers of the Golden Horde considered the Grand Duke of Vladimir to be the head of northeastern Rus'. He was supposed to be the eldest in the family from the descendants of Vsevolod Big Nest. However, the appanage princes soon violated this order, entering into the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir, based on the power of their principalities and the disposition of the Horde khans towards them. In this struggle for supremacy among the Russian lands, the Tver and Moscow princes were most active.

Tver Principality it arose as an independent inheritance in 1247, when it was received by the younger brother of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavovich. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav became Grand Duke. The Tver principality was then the strongest in Rus'. But he was not destined to lead the unification process. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. The Principality of Moscow is rapidly rising. Moscow, which before the Mongol-Tatar invasion was a small border point of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, at the beginning of the 14th century. turns into important political center of that time. Between these two principalities there is a struggle for the grand-ducal throne.

Mikhail Yaroslavovich, who ruled in Tver in 1304-1317, received a label from the Horde for the great reign. Later he starts a war with Moscow. In this war, the wife of Moscow Prince Yuri Daniilovich, who was also the sister of Khan Uzbek, dies. Summoned to the Horde, Mikhail was executed. The Khan's label on the grand-ducal throne first passed in 1319 to the Moscow prince. The next step in the struggle between the two principalities is the uprising in Tver. The rebels of Tver, outraged by the extortions and violence, killed the Tatars who arrived for tribute. Taking advantage of this, the Moscow prince came to Tver with the Mongol- Tatar army and suppressed the uprising. At the cost of the life of another Russian land, he contributed to the rise of his own principality. At the same time, the defeat of Tver deflected the blow from the rest of the Russian lands. The balance of power in Rus' changed in favor of Moscow.

The rise of Moscow was accompanied by other important reasons. Moscow occupied a geographically important central position among the Russian lands. From the south and east it was covered from the Horde invasions by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west by the Tver principality and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were impassable for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. All this caused an influx of population to the lands of the Moscow Principality. Moscow was a center of developed crafts, agricultural production and trade. It turned out to be an important hub of land and waterways, serving both for trade and military operations. Through the Moscow River and the Oka River, the Moscow Principality had access to the Volga, and through the tributaries of the Volga and the system of portages it was connected with the Novgorod lands.

A unique symbol of the success and strength of the Moscow principality was the construction in just two years of an impregnable white-stone Kremlin (1367) - the only stone fortress in the territory of north-eastern Rus'. All this allowed Moscow to repel the claim to all-Russian leadership of Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, and repel the campaigns of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.

The rise of Moscow is also explained by the purposeful, flexible policy of the Moscow princes, whose dynasty he founded youngest son Alexander Nevsky - Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Under him, the territory of the principality grew rapidly. Moscow includes Kolomna, Pereslavl, and Mozhaisk was annexed to Moscow from the Smolensk Principality. Since Mozhaisk is located at the source of the Moscow River, and Kolomna at the mouth, with their annexation the entire river came into the possession of the Moscow princes. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was one of the richest and most fertile regions of the northeast, so its inclusion in the Moscow Principality significantly increased the economic potential of the latter.

The next prominent figure, under whom the Moscow principality gained

Ivan Kalita became powerful. Under him, Moscow became the richest principality in Rus'. Hence the prince’s nickname - “Kalita” (“sum of money”, “purse”). The Grand Duke managed to achieve a close alliance between the grand ducal power of Moscow and the church. Moscow became the religious and ideological center of Rus'. Ivan Daniilovich was an intelligent, consistent, albeit cruel politician in achieving his goals. Having received the right to collect tribute from the Russian principalities and deliver it to the Horde, he achieved the necessary respite from the Horde invasions, which made it possible to boost the economy and accumulate strength to fight the common enemy. Under Ivan Kalita and his sons, the Galich, Uglich, and Belozersk principalities, as well as the Dmitrov, Kostroma, and Starodub lands, became subordinate to the Moscow principality.

No less important in the rise of Moscow, received victory on the Kulikovo field and feudal war in the second quarter of the 15th century.

The Battle of Kulikovo showed the strength and power of Moscow as a political and economic center - the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unify the Russian lands. Thanks to the Kulikovo victory, the size of the tribute was reduced. The Horde finally recognized the political supremacy of Moscow among the other Russian principalities. “Residents from different Russian lands and cities came to the Kulikovo field - but they returned from the battle as the Russian people” Grekov I.B., Shakhmatov F.F. World of history: Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries. - M., 1988.

The feuds, called the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century, began after the death of Vasily I. The fact is that by the end of the 14th century. In the Moscow principality, several appanage estates were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri and Vasily I. After the death of his brother, Yuri, as the eldest in princely family began the struggle for the grand-ducal throne with his nephew Vasily II. Then it was continued by Yuri’s sons, Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. If at first this clash of princes could still be explained by the “ancient right” of inheritance from brother to brother, then after the death of Yuri in 1434 it represented a clash of supporters and opponents of state centralization. The Moscow prince advocated political centralization, the Galich prince represented the forces of feudal separatism.

Only after the Moscow boyars and the church finally sided with Vasily II did the feudal war end with the victory of the forces of centralization. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, the possessions of the Moscow principality increased 30 times compared to the beginning of the 14th century. The Moscow Principality included Murom, Nizhny Novgorod and a number of lands on the outskirts of Rus'. The strength of the grand ducal power is evidenced by the refusal of Vasily II to accept the union between the Catholic and Orthodox churches under the leadership of the pope. The choice of the head of the Russian church was already determined in Moscow.

Education process Russian state with the capital in Moscow became irreversible.

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Economic recovery and the growth of feudal relations took place most intensively in North-Eastern Rus'. It was she who became the center of the struggle for the political unification of Russian lands. The fate of centralization in North-Eastern Rus', as in the rest of Europe, was decided during fierce internal wars.

Along with the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, in the 14th century. there were other, completely independent great principalities (Moscow, Tver, Ryazan, Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod) and lands (Novgorod, Pskov), as well as numerous appanage principalities. The main rivals in the struggle for the grand ducal throne were the Moscow and Tver princes. Moscow and Tver were the two largest centers of North-Eastern Rus'. Both cities were located on convenient waterways and developed as transit centers. Tver is between Novgorod, the Volga region and northeastern cities. Moscow - between Kyiv, Chernigov, Smolensk, Rostov, Vladimir. The princes received large incomes from trade duties and sought to expand their possessions at the expense of neighboring lands.

The first stage of centralization (beginning of the 14th century - 1389) became a time of struggle between the Moscow and Tver principalities for leadership in the “gathering of lands.” This struggle was carried out in the context of the active intervention of the khans of the Golden Horde, who gave the Russian princes a “label” for the right to occupy the grand-ducal throne of Vladimir. The first to take the title of Grand Duke of All Rus' was Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy, who at the beginning of the 14th century. tried to subjugate both Novgorod - Veliky and Nizhny, Kostroma, Pereyaslavl. The head of the Moscow principality - Ivan Kalita (grandson of Alexander Nevsky) - in the fight for this title, took advantage of the anti-Horde uprising in Tver in 1327. When the uprising was suppressed, he acted as an accomplice of the khan and, as a reward for this, received a label for the great reign of Vladimir and the right to collect tribute from all Russian lands for the Golden Horde. This provided Ivan Kalita's treasury with additional funds and allowed him to expand the territory of the Moscow Principality by purchasing a number of lands. The temporary cessation of Horde raids contributed to a further economic recovery.

Ivan Kalita's purposeful and flexible policy allowed him to gain the support of the church. In 1325, the metropolitan moved to Moscow from Vladimir, and Moscow became the new ecclesiastical center of Rus'. The main part of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir came under the rule of Ivan Kalita, and its capital was moved from Vladimir to Moscow.

The label for the reign of Vladimir was received in the Horde by the son of Ivan Kalita, Ivan II the Red, and later by his grandson Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy. The expansion of the borders of the Moscow principality, which was waged in constant struggle with other princes (Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Tver), made it possible to strengthen its internal position. This made it possible to achieve the first military successes in the fight against the Horde, which was going through a twenty-year period of strife. In 1378, Dmitry Ivanovich's troops defeated the Horde troops on the Vozha River. Since the end of the 70s, the authority of the Moscow Principality has strengthened, as it also became the center of the fight against the Horde, which consolidated its superiority over Tver. Prince Dmitry, as a result of a military campaign against Tver, managed to achieve surrender Prince of Tver, his renunciation of claims to the great reign of Vladimir, recognition of the primacy of the Moscow prince.

In 1380, a victorious battle took place between Russian troops under the leadership of Prince Dmitry (nicknamed Donskoy for this victory) over the army of Khan Mamai. The purpose of Mamai’s campaign was to restore Rus'’s dependence on the Horde to the extent that was characteristic of the mid-14th century. But for strengthened Rus' these demands were no longer acceptable. The victory on the Kulikovo Field did not mean the end of the rule of the Golden Horde, but it had enormous political consequences.

The second stage of centralization (1389 - 1462) became a period of Moscow’s further struggle to strengthen its positions and strengthen the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow as a result of the 20-year feudal war.

In the first quarter of the 15th century. the struggle for power was no longer between the strongest Russian princes, but between representatives of one ruling house - Kalita’s “nest”. The reason for the conflict was the issue of succession to power. Contrary to the will of Dmitry Donskoy in favor of his brother Yuri Galitsky (drawn up when his eldest son Vasily Dmitrievich did not yet have a direct heir), the throne, with the intervention of the Horde, passed to the later-born grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily II. The death of Vasily Dmitrievich in 1425 opened a period of debilitating civil strife. Yuri Galitsky, and then his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, with the support of the Volga and Moscow region cities, fought against Vasily II for the Moscow throne. The cruel blinding of Vasily II (who therefore received the nickname “Dark”) did not ensure victory for his opponents. The majority of the feudal lords of the center of North-Eastern Rus', the clan of Moscow landowners, rallied around Vasily II, ensuring the Grand Duke’s final victory in 1446.

Feudal War 1425 – 1446 slowed down the economic development of a number of principalities. The warring parties left behind strips of depopulated land, captured and turned their fellow tribesmen into slaves. The war also weakened the defense capabilities of the principalities. In 1438, Khan Ulug-Muhammad carried out a predatory raid on the Moscow principality. The Kazan Khanate, which emerged from the Golden Horde, became a constant threat to North-Eastern Rus'.

The end of the feudal war made it possible to quickly restore the economy of the Russian lands and continue the centralization of the state. The boundaries of the Moscow Principality expanded significantly. Most of the fiefs were liquidated, the position of the Moscow prince in Novgorod was strengthened (there the prince had the right to intervene in the resolution of court cases), Pskov and Vyatka came under the authority of Moscow.

The third stage of centralization (1462-1533) marked the completion of the political unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Under the son of Vasily the Dark, Ivan III (1462 - 1505), the principalities of Rostov and Yaroslavl came under the patronage of the Moscow prince on different terms, and Novgorod and Tver were annexed. Ivan III began to be called the sovereign of all Rus'. The creation of the Russian state made possible the final liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. A few years after Ivan III stopped paying tribute, Khan Ahmed in 1480 attempted a military campaign against Rus'. However, the campaign was inconclusive: after standing on the Ugra River (a tributary of the Ob), the Horde troops left for the steppe without a fight. This event completed the liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

The son of Ivan III, Vasily III Ivanovich (1505 - 1533), annexed the last independent lands - Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan.

Thus, at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. The Russian centralized state arose. It had a huge territory - it included the center Eastern Europe and its north. From the very beginning, the state was formed as a multinational state, which included numerous nationalities. Creation single state created favorable conditions for the development of economic life, made it possible to liberate Russian lands from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and strengthen the country's defense capability.

2.3 Centralization of Russian lands. The Rise of Moscow ( XIV – XVcenturies)

Plan

1 Historical background consolidation of Russian lands around Moscow.

2 Ivan III: formation Russian statehood and the end of the Horde yoke.

3 Socio-economic changes in the Russian state.

4 The Orthodox Church and the ideological concept of the Russian state.

Literature

1 Alekseev Yu.G. Sovereign of All Rus'. M., 1991.

2 Alekseev Yu.G. Under the banner of Moscow. M., 1992.

3 Golovatenko A. Episodes in the history of the Russian church of the XIII-XVIII centuries. M., 1997.

4 Gumilyov L.N. From Rus' to Russia. M., 1994.

5 Zimin A.A. Knight at a crossroads. Feudal war in Russia in the 15th century. M., 1991.

6 History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia IX-beginning XX centuries M., 1991.

7 History of Russia: people and power. St. Petersburg, 1997.

8 Pipes R. Russia under the old regime. M., 1993.

9 Skrynnikov R.G. Saints and authorities. L., 1990.

In the XIV V. The process of unification of the Russian lands that became part of the Golden Horde begins. The Russian ethnos is gradually being formed, a new, actually Russian state is taking shape.

Moscow becomes the center of unification of Russian lands. Moscow was first mentioned in the chronicle in 1147, when the Prince of Rostov-Suzdal Yuri Dolgoruky invited his ally Prince Svyatoslav Olgovich Novgorod - Seversky to Moscow and gave his guest a “strong dinner”. This year is considered the year of the founding of Moscow, although, of course, Moscow existed earlier.

What are the reasons that from a small town on the southern outskirts of the Rostov-Suzdal principality, Moscow has turned into the capital of a huge state.

Speaking about the reasons for the rise of Moscow, historians note, first of all, the benefits of its geographical location. Being in the center of the then Russian world, Moscow was located at the crossroads of the most important land and water roads connecting the Russian principalities. In particular, it became an important center for the grain trade, which gave its princes economic benefits and significant funds, which allowed them, on the one hand, to purchase labels for the great reign from the khans of the Golden Horde, and on the other, to expand their possessions through “purchases” .

Moscow's position was also advantageous from a military point of view. Despite the fact that it was repeatedly subjected to invasions and captures, nevertheless, its neighbors - Smolensk, Tver, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod principalities covered Moscow from the west, south and east, taking the first blow upon themselves. This relative safety contributed to the fact that in Moscow, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “as if into a central reservoir, people’s forces flocked from all the edges of the Russian land, threatened by external enemies.” Thus, Moscow and neighboring lands absorbed and mixed heterogeneous ethnic groups - Slavic, Balto-Lithuanian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic and became the core of the maturation of the Great Russian people.

However, similar, and maybe even more profitable geographical location Other cities also had: Tver, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod. Another the most important reason The rise of Moscow was the smart policy of the Moscow princes.

Moscow princes; expanding his possessions to everyone possible ways(purchase, capture - direct or with the help of the Horde, forced refusal appanage princes from their rights, colonization empty spaces), could retain the old population and attract new ones with taxes and other benefits, and skillfully used their labor.

In XII – XIII centuries Moscow was not yet the capital of the principality. At the beginning of the 14th century. The principalities of Tver, Novgorod, Ryazan, Suzdal, Rostov, and Murom enjoyed the greatest weight in inter-princely contradictions. The city of Vladimir was considered the center of North-Eastern Rus'. For historical development it did not matter what the name of the city that would become the capital of a single state would be. The position of Moscow and its insignificant prince seemed hopeless, unpromising in terms of supreme power in Rus'. But, obviously, it was precisely this circumstance that spurred and inspired the Moscow rulers. Their ambition and far-sighted calculations were hidden behind cunning and resourcefulness, patience and deceit. IN. Klyuchevsky did not hide the irony regarding the petty hoarding and mediocrity of the Moscow princes. But we must pay tribute to their political abilities and will.

In the 70s XIII century youngest son of Alexander Nevsky Danil became the founder of the Moscow princely dynasty. The expansion of Moscow's possessions was started by him and continued by his successors. Yuri Danilovich(1303-1325), Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340), Simeon Ivanovich the Proud (1340-1353), Ivan Ivanovich the Red (1353-1359) and Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy(1359-1389).

The rise of Moscow began under Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325 – 1340). In 1327, when Alexander of Tverskoy was the Grand Duke, something happened in Tver popular uprising against the Tatar-Mongols, during which he was killed Mongolian ambassador. Ivan Danilovich hurried to the Horde, reported the uprising, returned from there with the Tatar army and brutally devastated the Tver Principality. For this he received in 1328. from Khan Uzbek label on Great reign. This label gave the right collection tribute for Tatars from all Russian lands. Naturally, a significant part of this tribute ended up in the chests of the Moscow prince. It is his wealth that he owes to the nickname Kalita - “bag of money”, “wallet”.

Kalita traveled to the Horde nine times. He brought rich gifts to the khan, khans, and khan's officials, strengthening the Tatars' affection for himself and his principality. Under him, the external and internal security of the Russian lands was established. Tatar tax collectors – “Baskaks” – stopped going to Rus'; the land was cleared of “tatas” - robbers. Kalita preferred not to fight with his neighbors, but to buy land from them. He expanded his possessions, purchasing in neighboring principalities not only a number of villages and hamlets, but also three specific cities - Galich, Beloozero, Uglich.

Played a huge role in the rise of Moscow church. After the death of Metropolitan Maxim, who transferred the see from Kyiv to Vladimir, Peter became the head of the church. He often visited Moscow, touring his dioceses. Ivan Kalita managed to make friends with him. It so happened that Peter died here. Theognostus, who inherited the metropolitan see, knowing the favorable attitude of the Moscow princes towards the church, completely moved to Moscow.

In the eyes of the Russian people of those years, this event was a sign of the Lord. Moscow's importance increased even more as it became spiritual center all of Rus'.

Ivan Kalita's grandson Dmitry (1359 -1389) played a huge role in the rise of Moscow. He continued to expand the boundaries of his principality. In the course of an intense struggle with his rivals, the princes of Tver and Ryazan, he obtained from them recognition of the supremacy of Moscow. From now on, in all documents they were written “ younger brothers"Moscow prince. Dmitry declared that the city of Vladimir and the title of Grand Duke were “patrimony” - the hereditary possession of the Moscow princes and could not belong to anyone else.

But the main achievement of Dmitry’s foreign policy was that for the first time he dared to open struggle with the Golden Horde. They took advantage of the fact that in the Horde there was an internecine struggle between contenders for the khan's throne, and in 1378 he did not allow Tatar troops into Russian lands, and when they tried to invade by force, he defeated them on the river. Vozhe. In response, in 1380. khan Mamai, who seized the throne in the Horde, sent 150 thousand troops to Rus'. He made an alliance with Lithuanian prince Jagiello. The Ryazan prince Oleg took the side of Mamai, Tver and Novgorod took a wait-and-see position. The situation was extremely difficult. Under these conditions important role played the position of the church. Rector of the Trinity Lavra Sergius Radonezh called on all Russian lands to come out in support of Moscow and sent a squad led by the monk Peresvet to help Dmitry.

In September 1380. troops of the Vladimir-Suzdal lands under the leadership of the Grand Duke in the upper reaches of the Don, on Kulikov field, met with the army of Khan Mamai and inflicted a crushing defeat on them. Mamai fled to the Horde, where he was overthrown from the throne. The army of Jagiello of Lithuania, having learned about the defeat of Mamai, hastily retreated.

For this victory, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy, and after his death he was canonized by the Orthodox Church. The Kulikovo victory did not mark the end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Two years later the new khan Tokhtamysh with a large army he took and burned Moscow. But the victory over the Mongols made the Moscow prince national hero, and Moscow - the center of the national liberation movement. Moscow's primacy in Russian lands was already difficult to challenge. IN. Klyuchevsky wrote: “ Moscow State was born on the Kulikovo field, and not in the hoarding chests of Ivan Kalita.”

Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) became the heir of Dmitry Donskoy. He successfully continued the policies of his ancestors. However, after his death, a 25-year feudal war broke out between contenders for the grand ducal throne. Bloody battles, the capture of Moscow, the mutual blinding of opponents - Rus' saw everything in those years. What sat on the grand ducal throne was far from being the most capable, rather even a very mediocre ruler - Vasily II Dark. And under his successor Ivan III, fundamental changes took place in the history of the Russian state.

However, in addition to the desire of the rulers of the Moscow princely house to subordinate other princes to their power, there were deeper, objective reasons for overcoming the fragmented state of Rus'.

These, first of all, should include foreign policy circumstances - liberation from the Horde yoke, the ability to resist the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Sweden, and the German Order. The return of lost lands was possible only through the unification of all Russian principalities and centralization of power. Only in this case could Rus' count on independent state existence. It is very important that understanding of this circumstance permeated all layers of society - from the princely elite to peasants and artisans. The unity of Rus' became a national task.

Feudal fragmentation and princely strife caused great harm to the economy and negatively affected public relations. The peasantry, artisans, and merchants suffered from endless raids and princely strife. The dispersed administrative and judicial apparatus, limited by local conditions, created many inconveniences. The abundance of officials, the inconsistency of their actions, and even the need to “feed” them at their own expense placed an additional burden on the shoulders of the population. Tens and hundreds of gentlemen with their own orders, their own laws created nutrient medium for arbitrariness. Economic fragmentation prevented the development of new lands and the improvement of production activities. Therefore, both peasants and city residents relied on a single government, hoping that it would be able to create acceptable living conditions for them and would not allow the masters to turn them into a “ram’s horn.”

On the other hand, in given time There was a growth in private feudal land ownership. And the gentlemen - landowners were vitally interested in securing both land and labor for themselves. Therefore, they increasingly gravitated towards strengthening supreme power, which could protect them from the disobedience of the peasants and from the encroachments of other owners.

The Orthodox Church played an important role in the unification of Russian lands. In a country divided into many principalities, the daily activities of the clergy became difficult. The unity of faith also required the unity of supreme power. Therefore, the church was interested in the unifying policy of secular authorities.

It is important to note one more circumstance. The difficult years of trials did not break the spiritual strength of the Russian people. During the years of the Horde yoke, the process of formation of the Russian national identity, the feeling of love for the Motherland and the desire for its independence grew.

Thus, foreign policy, socio-economic and cultural-religious prerequisites for the creation of a united Russian state were taking shape in Rus'.

1. The first “senior prince” to receive a label from Batu was Alexander Nevsky. Despite his merits in the past, Alexander Nevsky skillfully pursued the policy of the Mongol-Tatars, especially in matters of collecting tribute, suppressing by force the actions of other appanage princes who were dissatisfied with his policies and new system authorities. At the same time, Batu, until his death in 1255, contributed in every possible way to strengthening the sole power of Alexander Nevsky as the sole Grand Duke of Rus' and the protege of the Golden Horde.

2. After the death of Alexander Nevsky in 1263, the process of centralization of Russian lands proceeded as follows:

- transformation of the label for the great reign from elective to hereditary and its gradual assignment to the descendants of Alexander Nevsky;

- the rise of Moscow, where the descendants of Alexander Nevsky reigned;

- the gradual expansion of Moscow, the inclusion of other appanage principalities into the Moscow Principality, led by the descendants of Alexander Nevsky;

- transformation of the appanage Moscow principality into the Moscow state, dominating all the principalities of northeastern Rus'.

The first mention of Moscow dates back to 1147. The founder of Moscow is considered Kyiv prince Yuri Dolgoruky, who founded the city on the land of the boyar Kuchka.

In 1276, the son of Alexander Nevsky, the Moscow appanage prince Daniil Alexandrovich, received from the Mongol-Tatars a label for the great reign and Moscow became one of the political centers.

The position of Moscow strengthened even more under the son of Daniil Alexandrovich and grandson of Alexander Nevsky, Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita (“money bag”), who received the label for the great reign in 1325. Ivan I Danilovich (Ivan Kalita) - grandson of Alexander Nevsky, who ruled in 1325 - 1340:

- was the best collector of tribute for the Golden Horde;

- at the head of the Moscow-Tatar army, he brutally suppressed the anti-Horde uprising in the city of Tver, Moscow’s main rival for supremacy in Russia;

- deserved complete trust Mongol-Tatar khans, who assisted him in every possible way in subjugating other appanage princes;

- obtained from the Mongol-Tatars the label for a great reign on the hereditary principle - for the branch of Alexander Nevsky of the Rurik dynasty (in fact, with the assistance of the Mongol-Tatars and under their authority, the formation of the ruling Russian dynasty began);

— went down in history as one of the first “gatherers of Russian lands” (he bought neighboring lands for money and increased the territory of the Moscow principality 5 times);

- received part of the lands (Kostroma) from the Mongol-Tatars for faithful service;

- convinced the Metropolitan of Russia Orthodox Church Peter in 1325 moved from Tver to Moscow, as a result of which Moscow became the center of Russian Orthodoxy and the spiritual center of Russian lands.

The policy of Ivan I Kalita - winning the trust of the Mongols, strengthening the power of the Moscow prince, expanding the Moscow principality - was continued by the sons of Ivan Kalita:

- Simeon Ivanovich (Simeon the Proud) - 1340 - 1353;

- Ivan II Ivanovich (Ivan the Red) - 1353 - 1359.