The feudal war took place during the reign. Third stage of unification

Turning to international relations in the first decades of the 20th century, historians most often try to find an answer to the question: why did it begin? World War? Let's consider events and phenomena that will help find out the reasons for its occurrence.

International relations at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century

Fast industrial development European countries and North America at that time pushed them to enter the wide world market, spread their economic and political influence in different parts Sveta.
Powers that already had colonial possessions, tried in every possible way to expand them. Thus, France in the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries. increased the territory of its colonies more than 10 times. The clash of interests of individual European powers led to armed confrontation, as, for example, in Central Africa, where British and French colonialists competed. Great Britain also tried to strengthen its position in South Africa- in the Transvaal and the Orange Republic. The determined resistance of the descendants of European settlers living there - the Boers - led to Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902).

Guerrilla warfare of the Boers and the most brutal methods waging war English troops(up to the burning of peaceful settlements and the creation concentration camps, where thousands of prisoners died) showed the whole world the terrible face of war in the coming 20th century. Great Britain defeated the two Boer republics. But this war, which was imperialist in its essence, was condemned by the majority at that time. European countries, as well as democratic forces in Britain itself.

Completed by the beginning of the 20th century. colonial section peace did not bring calm to international relations. Countries that have noticeably advanced in industrial development (USA, Germany, Italy, Japan) are actively involved in the struggle for economic and political influence in the world. In some cases they rejected colonial territories from their owners through military means. This is what the United States did when it launched a war against Spain in 1898. In other cases, colonies were “bargained.” This was done, for example, by Germany in 1911. Having declared its intention to seize part of Morocco, it sent a warship to its shores. France, which had earlier penetrated Morocco, ceded part of its possessions in the Congo to Germany in exchange for recognition of its priority. The following document testifies to the decisiveness of Germany's colonialist intentions.

From Kaiser Wilhelm II's farewell message to the German troops heading to China in July 1900 to suppress the Yihetuan uprising:

"Before the re-emerging German Empire there are great tasks beyond the sea... And you... must present to the enemy good lesson. When you meet an enemy, you must beat him! Give no quarter! Take no prisoners! Don't stand on ceremony with those who fall into your hands. Just as a thousand years ago the Huns, under their king Attila, glorified their name, which is still preserved in fairy tales and legends, so the name of the Germans, even a thousand years later, should evoke such feelings in China that never again would a single Chinese dare to look askance at the German!”

The increasing frequency of conflicts between great powers in different parts of the world has caused concern not only in public opinion, but also from the politicians themselves. In 1899, at the initiative of Russia, a peace conference was held in The Hague with the participation of representatives of 26 states. The second conference in The Hague (1907) was attended by 44 countries. At these meetings, conventions (agreements) were adopted that contained recommendations on the peaceful settlement of international disputes, limiting brutal forms of warfare (prohibition of the use of explosive bullets, toxic substances, etc.), reducing military spending and armed forces, humane treatment to prisoners, and also determined the rights and obligations of neutral states.

Discussion common problems maintaining peace did not prevent the leading European powers from dealing with completely different issues: how to ensure the achievement of their own, not always peaceful, foreign policy goals. It was becoming increasingly difficult to do this alone, so each country looked for allies. Since the end of the 19th century. two international blocs began to take shape - the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Franco-Russian alliance, which outgrew at the beginning of the 20th century. in the Triple Entente of France, Russia, Great Britain - the Entente.

Dates, documents, events

Triple Alliance
1879 - secret agreement between Germany and Austria-Hungary on joint defense against Russian attack.
1882 - Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

Franco-Russian alliance
1891-1892 - consultative pact and military convention between Russia and France.

Entente
1904 - agreement between Great Britain and France on the division of spheres of influence in Africa.
1906 - negotiations between Belgium, Great Britain and France on military cooperation.
1907 - agreement between Great Britain and Russia on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet.

International conflicts of the early 20th century. were not limited to disputes over overseas territories. They also arose in Europe itself. In 1908-1909 the so-called Bosnian crisis. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was formally part of the Ottoman Empire. Serbia and Russia protested because they were in favor of granting independence to these territories. Austria-Hungary announced mobilization and began to concentrate troops on the border with Serbia. Austria-Hungary's actions received German support, which forced Russia and Serbia to accept the takeover.

Balkan Wars

Other states also sought to take advantage of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro formed the Balkan Union and in October 1912 attacked the empire in order to liberate territories inhabited by Slavs and Greeks from Turkish rule. IN short term Turkish army was broken. But the peace negotiations turned out to be difficult because the great powers were involved: the Entente countries supported the states of the Balkan Union, and Austria-Hungary and Germany supported the Turks. According to the peace treaty signed in May 1913, Ottoman Empire lost almost all of my European territories. But less than a month later the second one broke out Balkan War- this time between the winners. Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece, trying to get its part of Macedonia liberated from Turkish rule. The war ended in August 1913 with the defeat of Bulgaria. It left behind unresolved interethnic and interstate contradictions. These were not only mutual territorial disputes between Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Romania. Austria-Hungary's dissatisfaction with the strengthening of Serbia as a possible center for the unification of the South Slavic peoples, some of which were in the possession of the Habsburg Empire, also grew.

Start of the war

On June 28, 1914, in the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo, a member of the Serbian terrorist organization Gavrilo Princip killed the heir Austrian throne Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife.

June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia in Sarajevo Five minutes before the assassination attempt

Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of incitement, to which an ultimatum note was sent. Fulfillment of the requirements contained in it meant for Serbia the loss of its state dignity and consent to Austrian intervention in its affairs. Serbia was ready to fulfill all the conditions, except for one, the most humiliating for it (about the investigation by Austrian services on the territory of Serbia of the causes of the Sarajevo assassination attempt). However, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Two weeks later, 8 European countries were involved in the war.

Dates and events
August 1 - Germany declared war on Russia.
August 2 - German troops occupied Luxembourg.
August 3 - Germany declared war on France, its troops moved towards France through Belgium.
August 4 - Great Britain entered the war against Germany.
August 6 - Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.
August 11 - France entered the war against Austria-Hungary.
August 12 - Great Britain declared war on Austria-Hungary.

On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany and began to seize German possessions in China and the Pacific. In the autumn of the same year on the side Triple Alliance

The Ottoman Empire entered the fight. The war went beyond the borders of Europe and became a global one. States that entered the war, as a rule, explained their decision by “higher interests” - the desire to protect themselves and other countries from aggression, allied duty, etc. But true goals

The goal of most participants in the conflict was to expand their territories or colonial possessions, increase influence in Europe and on other continents. Austria-Hungary wanted to subjugate the growing Serbia and weaken Russia’s position in the Balkans. Germany sought to annex the border territories of France and Belgium, the Baltic states and other lands in Europe, as well as expand its colonial possessions at the expense of the English, French, and Belgian colonies. France resisted the onslaught of Germany and at least wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine captured from it in 1871. Britain fought to maintain its colonial empire

Some exceptions were Serbia, which became the first victim of the attack, and Belgium, occupied by the Germans: they fought the war primarily to restore their independence, although they also had other interests.

War and Society

So, in the summer of 1914, the wheel of war rolled out of the hands of politicians and diplomats and invaded the lives of millions of people in dozens of countries in Europe and the world. How did people feel when they learned about the war? In what mood did the men go to the mobilization points? What did those who were not supposed to go to the front prepare for?

Official reports of the start of hostilities were accompanied by patriotic appeals and assurances of imminent victory.

French President R. Poincaré noted in his notes:

“The German declaration of war caused a magnificent outburst of patriotism in the nation. Never in its entire history has France been so beautiful as in these hours, which we were given to witness. The mobilization, which began on August 2, ended today, it took place with such discipline, in such order, with such calm, with such enthusiasm, which arouse the admiration of the government and military authorities... In England there is the same enthusiasm as in France; The Royal Family became the subject of repeated applause; Patriotic demonstrations are everywhere. The Central Powers aroused against themselves the unanimous indignation of the French, English and Belgian peoples.”

A significant part of the population of the countries that entered the war was covered nationalistic sentiments. Attempts by pacifists and some socialists to raise their voices against the war were drowned out by a wave of jingoism. The leaders of the labor and socialist movements in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and France put forward slogans of “civil peace” in their countries and voted for war loans. The leaders of Austrian Social Democracy called on their supporters to “fight tsarism,” and the British socialists decided first of all to “fight against German imperialism.” Ideas class struggle and international workers' solidarity were relegated to the background. This led to the collapse of the Second International. Only certain groups of Social Democrats (including the Russian Bolsheviks) condemned the outbreak of war as imperialist and called on workers to refuse support to their governments. But their voices were not heard. Armies of thousands went to war, hoping for victory.

Failure of Blitz War Plans

Although Austria-Hungary took the lead in declaring war, Germany immediately took the most decisive action. She sought to avoid a war on two fronts - against Russia in the east and France in the west. The plan of General A. von Schlieffen, developed before the war, provided first for the rapid defeat of France (in 40 days), and then for an active struggle against Russia. The German strike group, which invaded Belgian territory at the beginning of the war, approached the French border a little over two weeks later (later than planned, as the fierce resistance of the Belgians prevented it). By September 1914, German armies crossed the Marne River and approached the Verdun fortress. Execute the blitzkrieg plan ( lightning war) failed. But France found itself in a very difficult situation. Paris was under threat of capture. The government left the capital and turned to Russia for help.

Despite the fact that the deployment and equipment of Russian troops had not been completed by this time (this is exactly what Schliefen was counting on in his plan), two Russian armies under the command of generals P.K. Rennenkampf and A.V. Samsonov were abandoned on the offensive in August East Prussia(here they soon failed), and troops under the command of General N.I. Ivanov in September - in Galicia (where they dealt a serious blow to Austrian army). The offensive cost Russian troops big losses. But to stop him, Germany transferred several corps from France to the Eastern Front. This allowed the French command to gather forces and repel the onslaught of the Germans in a difficult battle on the Marne River in September 1914 (over 1.5 million people took part in the battle, losses on both sides amounted to almost 600 thousand killed and wounded).

The plan to quickly defeat France failed. Unable to get the better of each other, the opponents “sat into trenches” along a huge front line (600 km long) that crossed Europe from the coast North Sea to Switzerland. On Western Front a protracted positional war ensued. By the end of 1914, a similar situation had developed on the Austro-Serbian front, where the Serbian army managed to liberate the territory of the country previously captured (in August - November) by Austrian troops.

During the period of relative calm at the fronts, diplomats became more active. Each of the warring factions sought to attract new allies into its ranks. Both sides negotiated with Italy, which declared its neutrality at the beginning of the war. Seeing the failures of the German and Austrian troops in carrying out the lightning war, Italy in the spring of 1915 joined the Entente.

On the fronts

Since the spring of 1915, the center of combat operations in Europe moved to the Eastern Front. The combined forces of Germany and Austria-Hungary carried out a successful offensive in Galicia, displacing Russian troops from there, and by the fall the army under the command of General P. von Hindenburg captured the Polish and Lithuanian territories that were part of Russian Empire(including Warsaw).

Despite difficult position Russian army, the French and British command was in no hurry to attack on their front. Military reports of the time included the proverbial phrase: “No change on the Western Front.” True, positional warfare was also a difficult test. The fight intensified, the number of victims steadily increased. In April 1915 on the Western Front near the Ypres River german army held for the first time gas attack. About 15 thousand people were poisoned, 5 thousand of them died, the rest remained disabled. That same year, the war at sea between Germany and Great Britain intensified. To blockade the British Isles, the German submarines began to attack all the ships going there. Over the course of a year, over 700 ships were sunk, including many civilian ships. Protests from the United States and other neutral countries forced German command for some time to abandon attacks on passenger ships.

After the successes of the Austro-German forces on the Eastern Front in the fall of 1915, Bulgaria entered the war on their side. Soon, as a result of a joint offensive, the Allies occupied the territory of Serbia.

In 1916, believing that Russia was sufficiently weakened, the German command decided to launch a new blow to France. The goal of the German offensive launched in February was the French fortress of Verdun, the capture of which would open the way for the Germans to Paris. However, it was not possible to take the fortress.

This was explained by the fact that during the previous break in active actions On the Western Front, British-French troops secured an advantage over the Germans of several dozen divisions. In addition, at the request of the French command, in March 1916, an offensive of Russian troops was launched near Lake Naroch and the city of Dvinsk, which diverted significant German forces.

Finally, in July 1916, a massive offensive of the British-French army began on the Western Front. Particularly heavy fighting took place on the Somme River. Here the French concentrated powerful artillery, creating a continuous barrage of fire. The British were the first to use tanks, which caused real panic among the German soldiers, although they were not yet able to turn the tide of the fighting.

A bloody battle that lasted almost six months, in which both sides lost about 1 million 300 thousand people killed, wounded and prisoners, ended with a relatively small advance of the British and French troops. Contemporaries called the battles of Verdun and the Somme “meat grinders.”

Even the inveterate politician R. Poincaré, who at the beginning of the war admired the patriotic upsurge of the French, now saw a different, terrible face of the war. He wrote:

“How much energy does this life of troops require every day, half underground, in trenches, in the rain and snow, in trenches destroyed by grenades and mines, in shelters without clean air and light, in parallel ditches, always exposed to the destructive action of shells, in side passages, which can suddenly be cut off by enemy artillery, at forward posts, where a patrol can be caught every minute by an impending attack! How can we in the rear still know moments of deceptive calm, if there, at the front, people like us are doomed to this hell?

Significant events unfolded in 1916 on the Eastern Front. In June, Russian troops under the command of General A. A. Brusilov broke through the Austrian front to a depth of 70-120 km. The Austrian and German command hastily transferred 17 divisions from Italy and France to this front. Despite this, Russian troops occupied part of Galicia, Bukovina, and entered the Carpathians. Their further promotion was suspended due to a lack of ammunition and isolation of the rear.

In August 1916, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente. But by the end of the year, its army was defeated and the territory was occupied. As a result, the front line for the Russian army increased by another 500 km.

Rear position

The war required the warring countries to mobilize all human and material resources. The life of people in the rear was built according to the laws of war. Working hours at enterprises were increased. Restrictions were introduced on meetings, rallies, and strikes. There was censorship in the newspapers. The state strengthened not only political control over society. During the war years, its regulatory role in the economy grew noticeably. Government bodies distributed military orders and raw materials, and managed manufactured military products. Their alliance with the largest industrial and financial monopolies was taking shape.

Has changed and everyday life of people. The work of young people who left to fight, strong men fell on the shoulders of old people, women and teenagers. They worked in military factories and cultivated the land in conditions that were immeasurably more difficult than before.

From the book “Home Front” by S. Pankhurst (the author is one of the leaders of the women’s movement in England):

“In July (1916) women who worked in aviation factories in London approached me. They covered airplane wings with camouflage paint for 15 shillings a week, working from 8 a.m. to half past six in the evening. They were often asked to work until 8 o'clock in the evening, and were paid for this overtime work as if it were regular work... According to them, constantly six or more of the thirty women working in the painting were forced to leave the workshop and lie down on the stones for half an hour and more before they could return to their workplace.”

In most of the countries at war, a system of strictly rationed distribution of food and essential goods on food cards was introduced. At the same time, standards were cut two to three times compared to the pre-war level of consumption. It was possible to purchase products in excess of the norm only on the “black market” for fabulous money. Only industrialists and speculators who got rich from military supplies could afford this. Most of the population was starving. In Germany, the winter of 1916/17 was called the “rutabaga” winter, as due to a poor potato harvest, rutabaga became a staple food. People also suffered from a lack of fuel. In Paris in the mentioned winter there were cases of death from cold. The prolongation of the war led to an ever greater deterioration of the situation in the rear.

The crisis is ripe. The final stage of the war

The war brought ever-increasing losses and suffering to the people. By the end of 1916, about 6 million people died on the fronts, and about 10 million were wounded. The cities and villages of Europe became places of battle. In occupied territories civilians was subjected to robbery and violence. In the rear, both people and machines worked to their limits. The material and spiritual strength of the peoples was exhausted. Both politicians and the military already understood this. In December 1916, Germany and its allies proposed that the Entente countries begin peace negotiations, and representatives of several neutral states also spoke in favor of this. But each of the warring parties did not want to admit that they were losers and sought to dictate their own terms. Negotiations did not take place.

Meanwhile, in the countries at war themselves, dissatisfaction with the war and those who continued to wage it grew. " Civil world"was falling apart. Since 1915, the strike struggle of workers intensified. At first they mainly demanded an increase in wages, which were constantly depreciating due to rising prices. Then anti-war slogans began to be heard more and more often. Ideas to fight against imperialist war put forward by revolutionary Social Democrats in Russia and Germany. On May 1, 1916, during a demonstration in Berlin, the leader of the left Social Democrats, Karl Liebknecht, made calls: “Down with the war!”, “Down with the government!” (for this he was arrested and sentenced to four years in prison).

In England, the strike movement of workers in 1915 was led by the so-called shop elders. They presented the workers' demands to the management and steadily achieved their fulfillment. Pacifist organizations launched active anti-war propaganda. Aggravated and national question. In April 1916 there was an uprising in Ireland. Rebel troops led by socialist J. Connolly seized government buildings in Dublin and proclaimed Ireland an independent republic. The uprising was mercilessly suppressed, 15 of its leaders were executed.

An explosive situation has developed in Russia. Here the matter was not limited to the growth of strikes. February Revolution 1917 overthrew the autocracy. The Provisional Government intended to continue the war “until the victorious end.” But it did not retain power over either the army or the country. In October 1917 it was proclaimed Soviet authority. As for them international consequences, then the most noticeable thing at that moment was Russia’s exit from the war. First, unrest in the army led to disintegration Eastern Front. And in March 1918, the Soviet government concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies, under whose control vast territories remained in the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine and the Caucasus. Impact Russian revolution events in Europe and the world were not limited to this; it, as it became clear later, also affected inner life many countries.

Meanwhile the war continued. In April 1917, the United States of America declared war on Germany and then its allies. Several states followed Latin America, China and other countries. The Americans sent their troops to Europe. In 1918, after peace was concluded with Russia, the German command made several attempts to attack France, but to no avail. Having lost about 800 thousand people in battles, German troops retreated to their original lines. By the fall of 1918, the initiative in the conduct of hostilities passed to the Entente countries.

The question of ending the war was decided not only at the fronts. Anti-war protests and discontent grew in the countries at war. At demonstrations and rallies, slogans put forward by the Russian Bolsheviks were increasingly heard: “Down with war!”, “Peace without annexations and indemnities!” IN different countries workers began to appear and soldiers' advice. French workers adopted resolutions that said: “From the spark lit in Petrograd, the light will light over the rest of the world enslaved by militarism.” In the army, battalions and regiments refused to go to the front line.

Germany and its allies, weakened by defeats at the fronts and internal difficulties, were forced to ask for peace.

September 29, 1918 ceased fighting Bulgaria. On October 5, the German government made a request for an armistice. On October 30, the Ottoman Empire signed a truce with the Entente. On November 3, Austria-Hungary capitulated, overwhelmed by the liberation movements of the peoples living in it.

On November 3, 1918, a sailors' uprising broke out in Germany in the city of Kiel, marking the beginning of the revolution. On November 9, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II was announced. On November 10, the Social Democratic government came to power.

November 11, 1918 Commander-in-Chief allied forces in France, Marshal F. Foch, in his headquarters carriage in the Compiegne Forest, dictated the terms of the truce to the German delegation. Finally, the war ended, in which over 30 states took part (in terms of population, they accounted for more than half of the planet’s population), 10 million people were killed and 20 million were wounded. was coming hard way to the world.

References:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General history. XX- beginning of XXI century.

In the period from 1425 to 1453, power in the Moscow Principality passed from hand to hand. The struggle continued for almost thirty years. During this time, many events occurred that radically influenced not only the history of Russia, but also the entire world. Naturally, we're talking about about the decline of the Mongol Khanate. Let's talk about the events of this era and find out what they led to.

Origins of the principality

Muscovy formed in mid-18th century centuries on the territory North-Eastern Rus'. Moscow became the specific capital of the state. The principality played a big role because it stood on the route of water, land and trade routes. But the main factor why the feudal war of 1425-1453 began was that since the 14th century, Moscow rulers had been fighting for political supremacy over other lands. This confrontation led to centralized monarchy, which was necessary for further political development. From the middle of the 14th century, Moscow rulers were called grand dukes.

In the 1360s, the crown passed into the hands of Dmitry Donskoy. It was his victories that finally secured the supremacy of the Moscow principality over other lands. But at the same time, the ruler created the problem of succession to the throne, which subsequently marked the beginning of a struggle that went down in history as the feudal war of 1425-1453.

Background to the dispute

Dmitry Donskoy, grandson of Grand Duke Ivan I Kalita, reigned from 1359 to 1389. He had 12 children, but only two sons laid claim to their father’s power: the eldest, Vasily (known as Vasily I Dmitrievich, born in 1371) and the youngest, Yuri (popularly called Yuri of Zvenigorod, born in 1374).

But another prince planned to sit on the throne - his cousin, also the grandson of Ivan I Kalita Vladimir Andreevich Brave. The man argued that the prince's successor should be the eldest of his immediate family, that is, he. This all happened in 1388, when Dmitry Donskoy was already hopelessly ill. He rejected his brother’s candidacy and bequeathed Moscow to his eldest son Vasily. He gives Yuri Galich, Zvenigorod and Ruza. He is allowed to take the throne only in the event of the death of his elder brother. These are the main reasons feudal war.

Misunderstandings in the family

After Donskoy’s death in 1389, his place was taken by his 15-year-old son Vasily I. He comes to an agreement with his uncle Vladimir Andreevich the Brave (he preliminarily recognizes Dmitry Donskoy as his father, and his sons as older brothers) and with younger brother Yuri.

Vasily had nine children, but due to the pestilence, four of the five boys died. The prince passed away in 1425. His son Vasily Vasilyevich II, who was ten years old at that time, was proclaimed ruler.

The feudal war began because Yuri Dmitrievich, who was the uncle of Vasily II, began to challenge the legality of the actions. He and his supporters believed that another son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri, should become the successor. Donskoy himself spoke about this, because this was the order of succession to the throne.

In addition to the crisis in the family, many officials were not satisfied that the country was actually ruled by Lithuanian prince Vytautas, who was Vasily II’s grandfather maternal line. This was another reason why the feudal war began.

First period of the war

Immediately after the death of his brother, Yuri Dmitrievich was supposed to arrive in Moscow and swear allegiance. Instead, he went to Galich and began preparations for war. One of Vasily’s supporters, Metropolitan Photius, tried to settle the dispute. In 1428, Yuri declared his nephew his elder brother. But the future ruler had to be determined in the Golden Horde. Then the label for reign was given to Vasily, although the Zvenigorod prince assigned big hopes for this trip. This event took place in 1431.

The feudal war continued when Yuri, who did not agree with the khan's decision, began to prepare an army.

The period from 1425 to 1431 was not too bloody. Yuri Dmitrievich tried to come to power legally. But after the death of the regent, the Lithuanian Prince Vytautas, in 1430, the man offended by the Horde began to act decisively.

Confrontation between uncle and nephew

In 1433, Yuri and his two sons - Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka - went to Moscow. Another reason for such a struggle on Yuri’s part was personal prerogatives. The feudal war of the 15th century was also started because the father wanted to leave a significant inheritance to his sons. And for this it was necessary to win back what he considered to be his by right. Thus, the army of father and sons won on the Klyazma River. Grand Duke and his boyars fled to Kolomna, which Yuri gave to Vasily II. Then the sons quarreled with their father and also preferred the side of Vasily Vasilyevich. Having won the war, but being left alone, Yuri disregarded his pride and made peace with his nephew, returning the throne to him. This truce did not last long.

Some of Vasily II's comrades betrayed him. During the battles near the Kusya River and in the struggle near Rostov, Yuri's children again gained the upper hand. The feudal war gained new momentum when Yuri Dmitrievich died on June 5, 1434. Sources indicate that the cause of death was poison. He left the Moscow principality to his son Vasily Kosoy.

The fight between the Dark One and the Oblique

Even his relatives did not accept the new ruler. They teamed up with Vasily II (the Dark). Yuryevich fled from Moscow, taking the treasury with him. In Novgorod, he gathered an army and subsequently captured Zavolochye and Kostroma. In 1435 it was partially defeated by opponents near Moscow.

The feudal war in Rus' passed to Rostov. In 1436, Vasily Yuryevich lost the battle and was captured. There one of his eyes was gouged out, for which Vasily was nicknamed “squinty”. This is where the evidence about him ends. It is further mentioned that he died in prison in 1448.

Brother Dmitry was allocated lands and a high status in the state.

The end of the struggle for power

The feudal war in Rus' continues. In 1445, Vasily II was captured. His principality is headed by law by the closest heir - Dmitry Yuryevich. When Vasily Vasilyevich returns to his lands, he sends his brother to Uglich. But many boyars went over to his side and defended the power of the new prince. So Vasily II ended up in captivity, where he was blinded. For this they called him the Dark One. People who were dissatisfied with the power of Dmitry Yuryevich came to his aid. Taking advantage of the absence of the new prince, on February 17, 1447, Vasily the Dark again ascended the throne. His opponent tried several more times to seize power. Dmitry died of poisoning in 1453.

The results of the feudal war are as follows: the people and the authorities understood the need to unite into one state with the center in Moscow. The price for such knowledge was thousands of deaths and worsening economic and cultural life. In addition to the above, the influence of the Golden Horde on Russian lands increased. Many territories joined. Another significant event was the Yazhelbitsky Peace Treaty. Vasily II was succeeded by his son Ivan III, who completed the unification of Rus' around the Moscow principality.

The essence of the conflict

Starting from the $20-30s of the $15th century, the process of centralization and unification of lands slowed down somewhat. The reason was disagreements within the Moscow dynasty. Clashes occurred between Vasily II And Yuri Dmitrievich Galitsky. The first was the son of Vasily I, and Yuri was the second son of Dmitry Donskoy.

It must be said that the family principle essentially strengthened the position of the grand ducal power. The war between the descendants of Dmitry Donskoy became the last internecine war in Rus'.

Beginning of the war, $1433$ year

Vasily II was $10$ years old when his father Vasily I died. The patron of the young prince was his grandfather, the Lithuanian prince Vytautas. Such impressive support had to be reckoned with, so Yuri Dmitrievich recognized his nephew as Grand Duke. However, almost immediately after the death of Vytautas, in $1433$ Vasily II was expelled Yuri from Moscow. But the Moscow boyars followed the prince to Kolomna. Yuri had to leave the city.

Note 2

It should be noted that the refusal of the boyars to support Yuri demonstrates that at that time the differences in the statuses of the great and appanage princes were clearly clear.

In addition, the boyars believed that when Yuri the existing parochial hierarchy would undergo changes. Overall, these factors were sufficient to complete dynastic war, But Vasily II distinguished by political and military failure.

Second period of the war, $1434-$1436

In $1434$ year Yuri Dmitrievich managed to defeat the troops near Galich Vasily II, and then sit again on the Moscow throne. True, Yuri soon died. His struggle was continued by his son - Vasily Kosy. Wherein younger sons Yuri Dmitry Shemyaka And Dmitry Krasny supported Vasily II. As soon as in $1436$ the year as a result battles on the Cherekha River Vasily II achieved victory and captured Vasily Kosoy, he immediately blinded him. Such an act of cruelty, as well as the increased execution of captured nobles instead of ransom or exchange, indicate an intensification of the struggle.

Third period

After occupying the Moscow throne Vasily II in $1436 there was a pause in military operations within the state. But in foreign policy the situation was very tense, the Horde was disintegrating and at the same time intensifying the pressure on Rus'. In $1445$ year, in the summer, the prince Vasily II lost the battle and was captured by the Kazan Khan Ulu Mohammed. A huge ransom was set for the prince; its burden fell on the common people. The Muscovites were very dissatisfied with their prince. I took advantage of this circumstance Dmitry Shemyaka and made a coup in February $1446$. He blinded Vasily II, who then received the nickname Dark . Prince Vasily was exiled to Uglich. However, after this act, the Moscow boyars began to leave the city following Vasily, the prince was supported by the ruler of Tver. In addition, the church also provided support to the prince. It allowed Vasily II regain the throne in $1447$. Dmitry Shemyaka fled to Novgorod, in fact the war ended with his death in $1453, he was poisoned.

From Rus' to Muscovy

Civil wars of the second quarter of the 15th century

Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy

One of the most dramatic events in history medieval Rus' is considered to be a war between representatives of the Moscow princely house, which lasted from 1425 to 1453. The cause of the war is the division of large principalities into smaller (appanage) principalities. The system of appanages in the Moscow principality arose in the first half of the 14th century as a special, then most convenient form of managing the lands under the authority of the descendants of the first Moscow prince Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303).

According to the will of Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy, several estates were created. The eldest son, Vasily I, took the grand-ducal throne. The second, Yuri, received Zvenigorod near Moscow and Galich in the Kostroma land as an inheritance; the third son, Andrei, became the master in Mozhaisk and Vereya; the fourth - Peter, inherited Dmitrov and Uglich.

During the reign of Vasily I, Yuri did not claim anything, but he hoped that after the death of his elder brother, the Moscow grand-ducal throne would pass to him, as stated in the will of Dmitry Donskoy. However, when dying, Vasily I bequeathed the Moscow throne to his ten-year-old son Vasily II. But the Zvenigorod prince did not accept the collapse of his ambitious hopes. He moved to his Kostroma possessions and began to gather troops. And only thanks to the mediation of Metropolitan Photius, a temporary truce was concluded between uncle and nephew. The issue was referred to the Horde for consideration. But neither side was in a hurry to implement it.

Yuri Zvenigorodsky enters Moscow

Until 1431, Yuri sat in his specific possessions. After the death of Metropolitan Photius (1431), who sided with Vasily II, Yuri moved to more decisive action. He broke the peace concluded in 1428 with Vasily II and demanded the khan's court. In 1431-1432 both rivals went to the court of Khan Ulu-Muhammad. Khan decided the dispute in favor of Vasily II. However, due to a quarrel that broke out during the wedding of Vasily II, the son of Yuri of Zvenigorod, also Vasily, was publicly accused of stealing a gold belt from the princely treasury. Yuri gathered a large army, suddenly approached Moscow and completely defeated the Moscow army on the Klyazma River. Yuri's old dream came true - he occupied Moscow and declared himself Grand Duke. Kolomna was given to Vasily II as an inheritance. But many Moscow boyars and nobles, not wanting to obey Yuri, followed Vasily to Kolomna. Convinced that the Muscovites did not want to recognize him as their prince, Yuri soon gave Moscow to Vasily II, and he himself returned to Galich. But Vasily decided to achieve complete victory over an old enemy. He sent an army that ravaged Galich. In response to this, the Zvenigorod prince at the beginning of 1434 again went to war against Moscow. Having defeated the grand ducal army, he occupied the city for the second time. But Yuri did not celebrate his victory for long, because... in Moscow he soon died.

With the death of Yuri Zvenigorodsky, the first stage ended internecine war. If Yuri himself came out with the demand for “legality”, compliance with the tradition according to which brother inherits brother, then his sons - Vasily Kosoy, Dmitry Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny - fought only for the sake of self-preservation. After the death of their father, the brothers were unable to maintain unity. Both Dmitrys united with Vasily II and expelled their brother Vasily Kosoy from Moscow. Vasily II rewarded them with inheritances for this. Shemyak received Uglich and Rzhev, Krasny - Bezhetsky Verkh. Vasily Kosoy, having fled from Moscow, plundered northern cities and volosts.

Grand Duke Vasily the Dark (II) rejects the union Orthodox Church from Latin

When Dmitry Shemyaka came to Moscow to invite the Grand Duke to his wedding with Princess Sophia, Vasily arrested him because he suspected Shemyaka of having connections with Vasily Kosy. Following this, Vasily II defeated the army of Kosoy and, taking him prisoner, ordered him to be blinded. After a five-year break, a new “unrest” began in 1441. The Grand Duke launched a campaign against Galich to punish Shemyaka for not sending his troops to repel Khan Ulu-Muhammad. But Shemyaka managed to leave for Novgorod. The clash ended in a draw. Khan Ulu-Mukhammed, expelled from Crimea, settled in Kazan and in 1445 sent his sons to Rus'. The Grand Duke opposed them. Shemyaka withdrew from participating in the campaign. In a fierce battle near Suzdal, Russian troops were defeated, and Vasily II was captured.

However, Khan Ulu-Muhammad soon released Vasily II, as he decided that his ambassador had been killed by the Galichs. Liberation came at a cost to Vladimir. He promised to pay a huge ransom, for which a Tatar detachment arrived in Rus'. Dmitry Shemyaka also hastened to take advantage of the people's dissatisfaction with the extortions. Speaking under the slogan of the fight for faith, Shemyaka attracted Ivan Mozhaisky and Boris Tverskoy to his side. Some of the Moscow boyars and townspeople joined the conspiracy. In February 1446, Vasily II and his children went to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Taking advantage of the moment, Shemyaka captured Moscow with a swift raid, and Ivan Mozhaisky arrested the Grand Duke in the monastery. Vasily II was blinded and imprisoned. The reign of Dmitry Shemyaka began.

But it soon became clear that Shemyaka was not able to strengthen the city, which had been badly shaken by strife and Tatar raids. public order. During his reign, bribery, arbitrariness and lawlessness flourished. Khan Ulu-Muhammad was dissatisfied with the change of power in Rus' and therefore sent his troops to Uglich. The sons of Grand Duke Vasily II took refuge in Murom. But Shemyaka lured them to Moscow, promising immunity, and then sent them to captivity in Uglich. Meanwhile, supporters of Vasily II made an attempt to free him from captivity and severely battered the troops of Shemyaka. Shemyaka released Vasily II from prison, made peace with him and gave Vologda as his inheritance. Within two months, Vasily II teamed up with Boris Tversky. Gradually, Vasily II gathered a significant army, and Dmitry Shemyaka and Ivan Mozhaisky were inactive, their followers left the camp. Vasily captured Moscow, Shemyaka fled to Galich.

Has begun final stage war, in which the clear superiority of Prince Vasily II was felt. In 1448 Vasily II moved to Galich. Peace has been restored. On next year Dmitry Shemyaka began military operations, but his campaign against Kostroma was unsuccessful. In the winter of 1450, having gathered significant forces, Vasily II decided to finally deal with his old enemy. Near Galich, the grand ducal army defeated Dmitry Shemyaka. Galich was taken, and Shemyaka fled to Novgorod. In 1453, Dmitry was poisoned by his own cook, bribed by the people of Vasily II.

Dmitry Shemyaka's meeting with Prince Vasily II the Dark

In general, this war is characterized by not the most humane methods for achieving goals. Very often power was seized at the moment when the opponent was unable to fight back. For this purpose, the enemy was blinded, lured into traps, while guaranteeing immunity, etc. In addition, the war increased the period Horde yoke in Rus' for at least half a century, since during the war Rus' could not resist the Horde, and the state needed at least 20 years to recover and reunite after the war.

After the end of the war, in the second half of the 15th century, the Russian lands were in a state political fragmentation. There were several major centers, to which all other areas gravitated. Such independent centers were Moscow, Tver, Novgorod and Vilna - the Lithuanian capital. It should be emphasized that it was precisely the most “broken” areas that stood out. Moscow changed hands several times during the feudal war. Lithuania and Novgorod fought with the crusaders. But before the feudal war such political centers there was much more.

Gabriel Tsobekhia

Background of the dynastic war

• The struggle of family (direct - from father to son) and clan (indirect - by seniority from brother to brother) began in the inheritance of the princely throne;
• The controversial will of Dmitry Donskoy, which could be interpreted from different hereditary positions;
• Personal rivalry for power in Moscow among the descendants of Prince Dmitry Donskoy

Rivalry for power of the descendants of Dmitry Donskoy

Course of events of the dynastic war