Lesson of the Middle Ages crescent versus cross. Why do Orthodox crosses have a crescent moon? Discovering new knowledge

Although for a share Western Europe fell into XIV-XV centuries difficult trials, the fate of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula at this time turned out to be even more difficult. In addition to the plague, clashes between neighboring Christian states and strife in each of them, the southeast of Europe was hit dangerous enemy- Ottoman Turks. In the Balkans they were opposed by three states: Byzantium, Serbia and Bulgaria.

The weakening of Byzantium began in the 11th century. The Fourth Crusade dealt the strongest blow to it. Its territory, population and financial capabilities have been greatly reduced. Trying to strengthen its position in the Balkans, Byzantium inevitably weakened eastern borders. Imperial power, which for almost two centuries was mainly retained by the Palaiologan dynasty, noticeably weakened. The Empire was being devastated civil wars. Western sovereigns were wary and even hostile towards Byzantium.

Constantinople was a sad sight: part of the city lay in ruins. But even in this form, Constantinople continued to attract merchants and pilgrims, including from Rus'. The quarters inhabited by Western European merchants were still crowded. Cultural life Byzantium and its capital during this period of decline was more intense and fruitful than ever. Mosaics, frescoes and icons of the 14th century were distinguished by their special beauty and spirituality.

Lesson 27. Crescent versus cross

Subject: history.

Date: 01/09/2011

Teacher: Khamatgaleev E. R.

Objectives: to consider the reasons for the weakening of Byzantium and the South Slavic states; characterize the originality Ottoman state; consider the folding process Ottoman Empire.

Checking homework.

The birth of the Ottoman Empire.

Equipment: Ved. §28.

Lesson progress

Checking homework.

Why was the Polish-Lithuanian union concluded?

Why did the Czech Republic become a center of attraction for German colonists?

Describe the views of Jan Hus.

Byzantium and South Slavic states.

Remember what states existed in the Balkans? (Byzantium, Serbia, Bulgaria.)

From what blow did Byzantium fail to recover? (From plunder during the fourth crusade.)

Remember when the fourth crusade took place? (In 1204)

True, Byzantium was revived as a state in 1261, but now it could not even dream of its former power. The Palaiologan Empire, which ruled Byzantium for the last two centuries of its existence, irrevocably ceded hegemony in the Balkans to Serbia and Bulgaria.

Why did Byzantium receive so much attention? great attention and during the years of its decline? (It was the spiritual center of Orthodoxy and controlled many trade routes.)

Bulgaria regained its independence at the end of the 12th century. This became the beginning of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom with its capital in Tarnovo. In the XIV century. Bulgaria was divided into two states: Tsar Ivan Alexander left one part for himself and his eldest son, and gave the other to his younger son. These two Bulgarias had little dependence on each other. The heyday of Serbia is associated with the name of Stefan Dusan (1331-1355). He initiated numerous campaigns of conquest, some of which were directed against Byzantium. The power of Stefan Dušan extended all the way to Aegean Sea. However, after his death she was torn by controversy.

Textbook material

What are the reasons for the success of the Ottoman Turks in the 14th-15th centuries?

A dying empire. Although Western Europe suffered many difficult trials in the 14th and 15th centuries, the fate of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula at that time turned out to be incomparably more difficult. In addition to the plague, clashes between neighboring Christian states, unrest and strife in each of them, a strong and dangerous enemy fell upon the southeast of Europe - the Ottoman Turks. In the Balkans they were opposed by three relatively large states: Byzantium, Serbia and Bulgaria.

The weakening of Byzantium began in the 11th century. The Fourth Crusade dealt the strongest blow to it. True, in 1261 the empire was restored, but from now on it was a shadow of its former power. Its territory, population and financial capabilities have been greatly reduced. Either Bulgaria or Serbia claimed a leading role in the Balkans. Trying to strengthen its position here, Byzantium inevitably weakened its eastern borders. Imperial power, largely retained by the Paleoli dynasty for almost two centuries O gov, noticeably weakened. The empire was devastated by civil wars and mercenary rebellions. Western sovereigns belonged to Byzantium in best case scenario wary, others were ready to take revenge on the Greeks for the destruction of the Latin Empire.

Remember when the Fourth Crusade took place and how it ended.

Constantinople was a sad spectacle of decline: the city was full of ruins, and some of its areas generally seemed countryside. But even in this form, Constantinople, remaining the Second Rome, continued to attract merchants and pilgrims (among the latter there were many Russians). The quarters near the Golden Horn, inhabited by Italians and other Western European merchants, were still crowded.

The cultural life of Byzantium during this period of decline and desolation was likenever rich and fruitful. Mosaics, frescoes and icons of the 14th century were distinguished by their special beauty and spirituality. A brilliant galaxy of theologians and historians worked in Constantinople.

Bulgaria and Serbia: untimely easing. The most powerful Slavic countries in the Balkans in the 14th century were Bulgaria and Serbia. Bulgaria, having fallen under the rule of Byzantium at the beginning of the 11th century, regained its independence at the end of the 12th century as a result of a victorious uprising. The so-called Second Bulgarian kingdom(late XII - late XIV centuries) with its capital in Tarnovo. Bulgaria quickly strengthened. IN early XIII century, Tsar Kaloyan even managed to defeat the army of the Latin Empire. However, later the struggle between groups of feudal lords intensified in the country. IN mid-XIV century, Tsar Ivan Alexander divided the weakened state into two parts: in the main part he ruled together with his eldest son, and western regions gave it to the younger one. After his death, the brothers did not support each other and pursued independent policies.

Remember when the First Bulgarian Kingdom arose.

The brief flourishing of Serbia dates back to the reign of King Stefan Dušan (1331-1355). He was an intelligent and energetic sovereign, a capable commander and a resourceful diplomat. His goal was to establish Serbian dominance in the Balkans, so he directed the main blow against Byzantium. His huge power, created as a result of successful conquests, stretched from the Adriatic to the Aegean Sea. But by combining different peoples by force of arms, it turned out to be fragile and soon fell apart - just at the moment when the Turks appeared near the borders of Serbia.

The birth of the Ottoman Empire.

At the end of the 13th century. A state populated by the Turks arose in Asia Minor. Its first ruler was Osman. That is why the people of this state received the name Ottoman Turks. Subsequently, the ruler of the Ottoman state was called the Sultan. The Turks led successful wars against the weakening Byzantium. They managed to create strong cavalry and artillery. From conquered peoples, in addition to poll tax, they collected a “living tax” - by children. Taking healthy children from their parents, they raised them in loyalty to Islam and the Sultan. Some of them became an official, and some became a Janissary, a warrior of the Sultan. Thanks to this, the Ottomans managed to create combat-ready army. By the end of the 14th century. they conquered all of Bulgaria, and in 1389 they defeated Serbia on the Kosovo field and annexed it to their possessions.

What could Europe do to protect itself from a possible Turkish invasion? (Start a crusade.)

In 1396, the pope proclaimed a crusade against the Turks. It was headed by the Hungarian Sigismund, the future Holy Roman Emperor.

What do you know about Sigismund? (This is the son of Emperor Charles IV. Subsequently, it was he who was responsible for the death of Jan Hus.)

The crusade failed. The knights were defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis. However, the Turkish advance to the West was stopped by the eastern conqueror Tamerlane. In 1402 he defeated Turkish Sultan Bayezid I. This forced the Ottomans to postpone their campaigns of conquest for 50 years. At this time, Byzantium tried to find an agreement with the Catholic world. During the church council, held in 1438-1439. in Ferrara and Florence, representatives of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and Rome decided to conclude a church union. The Orthodox hierarchs of Constantinople recognized the authority of the pope, and the Catholic Church agreed to maintain Eastern Church special status. The Papacy organized a new crusade to the East. However, it again ended in nothing. In 1444 the crusaders were defeated near Varna. In 1453, the Turks began the siege of Constantinople. The city was besieged by more than 150,000 people, and defended by about 7,000. On May 29, during the assault, the city was taken, and the last emperor, Constantine XI, was killed in battle. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul, and Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque.

Notebook entry: 1453 – fall of Constantinople.

Textbook material

Power of the descendants of Osman. At the end of the 13th century, in the north-west of Asia Minor, on the territory of the expanded state of the Seljuk Turks, a small but warlike state was formed. Its ruler was called Osm A nom, and later all the tribes united under his rule began to be called Ottoman Turks or simply the Ottomans. Over time, the head of the Ottoman state took the title Sultan.

Successful wars with the weakened Byzantium attracted many Seljuks to serve the Ottomans. Their state quickly expanded, soon absorbing all the Asian possessions of Byzantium. Ottoman sultans turned out to be talented commanders and created a reasonable system for organizing and replenishing troops. It was based on numerous cavalry. The Ottomans quickly realized the benefits firearms and created the best artillery in Europe.

In addition to the poll tax, the Ottomans collected a kind of “living tax” from the conquered Christians. Healthy and strong boys taken away from their parents, distributed among Turkish families and were brought up in the spirit of hatred of Christianity, fanatical devotion to Islam and the Sultan personally. The most capable of them became officials, and the rest became Janichs.A rami (from the Turkish words “yeni cheri” - new army); they made up the most combat-ready unit Ottoman troops. This practice allowed the Ottomans to constantly increase their forces at the expense of conquered peoples. As a result, their army usually had a significant numerical advantage (often 2-3 times). And new conquests, in turn, made it possible to further increase the army.

In the first half of the 14th century, pretenders to the Byzantine throne often sought the help of the Ottomans, thereby paving the way for them to Europe. The Ottomans became convinced of the weakness of the Balkan countries and soon went on the offensive. Having captured vast lands from Byzantium and leaving Constantinople, no longer dangerous for them, in the rear, the Ottomans moved against Bulgaria and Serbia. Despite heroic resistance, by the end of the 14th century, all of Bulgaria found itself under Turkish rule for five centuries.

The fate of Serbia was decided in 1389 fierce battle by K O owl field. The Turks had a great advantage in strength. At the beginning of the battle, Serbian patriot M And Losh About And The lich, pretending to be a defector, entered the Turkish camp and pierced the Sultan with a dagger. He hoped that the death of the leader would cause confusion among the Turks, but his calculation did not come true. The Sultan's son, having taken command, managed to temporarily hide his father's death from the Turkish troops. The Turks won a complete victory.

After the Kosovo tragedy, Serbia found itself in vassalage from the sultans, and in the next century it was conquered by them.

Find Kosovo Field on the map (see p. 271).

Write it down in your notebook and explain keywords paragraph 3 “Power of the descendants of Osman”.

Looking for salvation. Only in end of the 14th century centuries in the West finally realized the serious danger facing Byzantium. In 1396, the popes organized a Crusade against the Turks. 60 thousand army from different countries Europe was led by the Hungarian king Sigismund (the same one who later became emperor and presided over the council in Constance, which condemned Jan Hus). In the battle of N And Kopole on the Danube, the crusaders suffered a crushing defeat. Many knights died or were captured, Sigismund barely escaped with his life.

The winner, Sultan Bayezid I the Lightning, was already preparing for the assault on Constantinople when his possessions in Asia Minor fell famous conqueror Timur. In 1402, Timur defeated Bayezid at the Battle of Ankare . The arrogant Sultan was captured and soon died, unable to withstand the humiliation. Timur, having ravaged the Ottoman possessions, retired to Central Asia.

The death of Bayezid and the subsequent struggle of his sons for power delayed the fall of Byzantium. The Basileus understood perfectly well that the threat still existed, and tried to get more significant help from Western Europe. For this they were even ready to agree to church union (that is, unification) with Catholics. The union was adopted at a council held in 1438-1439 in the Italian cities of Ferrara and Florence. Almost all disagreements were resolved in favor of Rome, so b O The majority of Orthodox Christians in Byzantium and beyond did not accept the union. The enmity between supporters and opponents of the union further weakened Byzantium. A military assistance The West turned out to be very limited. The next army of the Crusaders was defeated in 1444 near Varna, after which Byzantium was left alone with the Ottoman Empire.

In what connection have you already come across the word “unia”? What's the difference?

Fall of Constantinople. Sultan Mehm e d II the Conqueror (1451-1481), having ascended the throne as a young man, immediately began preparations for the conquest of Constantinople. In April 1453, a huge Turkish army, numbering about 150,000 people, began the siege of Constantinople. The city was from the sea blocked strong fleet. Constantinople was considered impregnable, and in the West, having learned about the siege, they were in no hurry to help, hoping that the city would hold out for many months. However, the impoverished Byzantium at the decisive moment was unable to gather a large army: only 7,000 defenders resisted the attackers.

(Blockade is the isolation of a specific territory in order to subject it to certain requirements.)

Having carried big losses In the first assaults, the Turks tried to fill up the ditches and make holes in the walls with artillery. Both mines and siege towers were used. The besieged defended themselves courageously, but their strength was dwindling. The Sultan constantly threw fresh troops into battle, and the few defenders could not rest either day or night. On May 29, the decisive assault began. Twice besieged from last bit of strength repelled enemy attacks, but the third time the Turks nevertheless broke into the city. Basileus Constantine XI died with weapons in his hands. By evening, the Sultan entered the conquered and already plundered city. From now on, he could consider himself not only a sultan, but also the heir and ruler of the ancient Roman Empire. Constantinople, renamed Istanbul, soon became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Many defenders of the city and civilians died, and many more were sold into slavery. Hagia Sophia became a mosque. The crescent, the symbol of Islam, prevailed over the Christian cross.

The fall of Byzantium and the lack of Western help sealed the fate of those parts of the Balkan Peninsula that still retained their independence: less than 15 years had passed before they all fell under the rule of the Turks. Their supreme power recognized and Crimean Tatars, who, with the support of the Ottomans, later repeatedly raided Russian state. The Ottoman Empire was entering the era of its greatest power.

Fall of a thousand years Byzantine Empire made a stunning impression on his contemporaries. It is no coincidence that some historians consider 1453 to be the end of the Middle Ages. From their point of view, the Middle Ages began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ended with the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire.

What else important event happened this year?

The impact of Byzantine culture was so significant that it continued after the fall of the empire. Historians even have a concept: “Byzantium after Byzantium.” Fleeing from the Turks, Byzantine scientists, artists, and artisans moved to other countries, if possible taking ancient manuscripts and icons from their homeland. Many Greeks settled in Italy, making a significant contribution to the flourishing Italian culture of that time. And others moved to Russia, where their talents enriched Russian culture.

After the death of Byzantium, Russia remained the only major Orthodox state, the heir of Byzantium. The symbolic embodiment of this continuity was the marriage of the Russian sovereign Ivan III and his niece last emperor– Zoe Paleolog (in Rus' they called her Sophia). Coat of arms of Palaiologos - double headed eagle- became the Russian coat of arms.

THE BATTLE OF NICOPOL (1396) IN THE DESCRIPTION OF ITS PARTICIPANT, JOHANN SHILTBERGER

The siege of this city from land and from the river had already lasted 16 days, when the Turkish king Bayezid came to his aid with an army of 200 thousand. Having learned about this, King Sigismund approached him within a mile with an army consisting of approximately 16 thousand people... The Duke of Burgundy demanded that he be allowed to attack first because he arrived with 6 thousand soldiers from such a distant region and spent so much money during your transition. The king begged him to give the Hungarians the opportunity to attack first, since they, who had often fought with the Turks, knew their fighting style better than others. However, the Duke, instead of yielding to the Hungarians, gathered his warriors, attacked the enemy and galloped through two of his detachments, but could not get through the third and wanted to return. However, here he was surrounded by the Turks, who... forced the Duke to surrender...

Seeing that King Sigismund was approaching, the Turkish king wanted to flee. However, he was noticed by the Duke of Serbia, called the Despot, and came to his aid with 15 thousand selected warriors... The Despot attacked the king’s detachment. He brought down his banner and forced him to seek salvation in flight. The knights and other warriors, seeing that the king was fleeing, also turned back, and many of them fled to the Danube.

Using the source text, determine the causes of the defeat European knights. Why do you think the Despot (ruler) of Christian Serbia ended up on the side of the Turks?

Self-control issues.

Find on the map the territories of Byzantium, Bulgaria and Serbia in the 14th century. How has it changed? political map Balkan Peninsula by the end of the 15th century? Apply to contour map directions conquests Ottoman Turks and the places of the battles indicated in the text of the paragraph.

What were the reasons for the weakening of Byzantium in the 13th-15th centuries?

What role did the Ferraro-Florentine Union play in the events surrounding the fall of Byzantium?

Why did the Turks usually have superiority over Christian troops in the 14th-15th centuries?

What meaning do historians put into the words: “Byzantium after Byzantium”?

Remembering what you know about the history of Western Europe in the 14th-15th centuries, think about why its assistance to Byzantium was so limited.

Write a story on behalf of an eyewitness to the events of May 29, 1453 (optional: Italian merchant; Byzantine monk; Turkish warrior).

Danilov D.D. etc. General history. 6th grade. History of the Middle Ages. § 10

Slide 2

DEFINE THE PROBLEM

From the speech of Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in 1095

“Jerusalem is the navel (center) of the Earth!.. The rivers there flow with milk and honey, this is the most fertile land - the second paradise... Snatch this land from the wicked people, conquer it for yourself<...>save the brothers living in the east!.. Those who are sad and poor here will be joyful and rich there!.. Those who lay down their lives in battle will have all their sins forgiven!”

Are there phrases in the text that speak about the liberation goals of the crusaders?

About aggressive goals?

Slide 3

• THE CRUSADES ARE LIBERATION OR CONQUEST?
• YOUR FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM MAY NOT COICH THE AUTHOR'S. PLEASE CHOOSE THE FORMULATION IN CLASS THAT IS MOST INTERESTING TO YOU!