What is a means of expression in literature? Means of artistic expression (visual and expressive means)

Comparison- This is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another on some basis, based on their similarity. The comparison can be expressed:

– through the use of conjunctions (as, as if, exactly, as if, as if, like, than):

I am moved, silently, tenderly

I admire you like a child!

(A.S. Pushkin);

– shape instrumental case: And the net, lying on the sand like a thin through shadow, moves, continuously grows with new rings(A.S. Serafimovich);

– using words like similar, similar: The rich are not like you and me(E. Hemingway);

– using negation:

I'm not such a bitter drunkard,

So that I can die without seeing you.

(S.A. Yesenin);

– comparative degree of an adjective or adverb:

Tidier than fashionable parquet

The river shines, covered in ice.

(A.S. Pushkin)

Metaphor- This is the transfer of the name (properties) of one object to another on the basis of their similarity in some respect or by contrast. This is the so-called hidden (or shortened) comparison, in which the conjunctions as if, as if, as if... are missing. For example: lush gold of the autumn forest(K.G. Paustovsky).

Varieties of metaphor are personification and reification.

Personification- This is an image of inanimate objects, in which they are endowed with properties, traits of living beings. For example: And the fire, trembling and wavering in the light, restlessly looked with its red eyes at the cliff that protruded for a second from the darkness(A.S. Serafimovich).

Reification- This is the likening of living beings to inanimate objects. For example: The front rows lingered, the back ones became thicker, and the flowing human river stopped, just as noisy waters stop in silence, blocked in their channel.(A.S. Serafimovich).

Metonymy- This is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on the associative contiguity of these objects. For example: The entire gymnasium is in hysterical convulsive sobs.(A.S. Serafimovich).

Synecdoche(a type of metonymy)- this is the ability of a word to name both the whole through its part, and a part of something through the whole. For example: Flashed black visors, bottle boots, jackets, black coats(A.S. Serafimovich).

Epithet- This artistic definition, emphasizing any attribute (property) of an object or phenomenon, which is a definition or circumstance in a sentence. The epithet can be expressed:

– adjective:

Cabbage blue freshness.

And red maples in the distance.

The last gentle tenderness

Quiet autumn land.

(A. Zhigulin);

– noun: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers(M.Yu. Lermontov);

- adverb: And the midday waves rustle sweetly(A.S. Pushkin).

Hyperbola - this is a means artistic image, based on excessive exaggeration of the properties of an object or phenomenon. For example: The sidewalk whirlwinds swept the pursuers themselves so hard that they sometimes overtook their hats and came to their senses only when they touched the feet of the bronze figure of Catherine’s nobleman standing in the middle of the square (And.A . Ilf, E.P. Petrov).

Litotes is an artistic technique based on downplaying any properties of an object or phenomenon. For example: Tiny toy people sit for a long time under the white mountains near the water, and grandfather’s eyebrows and rough mustache move angrily(A.S. Serafimovich).

Allegory- this is an allegorical expression abstract concept or phenomena through a specific image. For example:

You will say: windy Hebe,

Feeding Zeus's eagle,

A loud boiling goblet from the sky,

Laughing, she spilled it on the ground.

(F.I. Tyutchev)

Irony- this is an allegory expressing ridicule when a word or statement in the context of speech acquires a meaning that is directly opposite to the literal one or casts doubt on it. For example:

“Did you sing everything? this is the case:

So come and dance!”

(I.A. Krylov)

Oxymoron- This is a paradoxical phrase in which contradictory (mutually exclusive) properties are attributed to an object or phenomenon. For example: Diderot was right when he said that art lies in finding the extraordinary in the ordinary and the ordinary in the extraordinary.(K.G. Paustovsky).

Periphrase- it is the replacement of a word with an allegorical descriptive expression. For example: Direct duty obliged us to enter this terrifying crucible of Asia(this is how the author called the smoking bay of Kara-Bugaz) (K.G. Paustovsky).

Antithesis- opposition of images, concepts, properties of objects or phenomena, which is based on the use of antonyms. For example:

I had everything, suddenly lost everything;

The dream has just begun… the dream has disappeared!

(E. Baratynsky)

Repeat- This is the repeated use of the same words and expressions. For example: My friend, my dear friend… I love… yours… yours!..(A.S. Pushkin).

The types of repetition are anaphora and epiphora.

Anaphora (unity of principle) - this is repetition initial words in adjacent lines, stanzas, phrases. For example:

You are full of an immense dream,

You are full of mysterious melancholy.

(E. Baratynsky)

Epiphora- This is the repetition of final words in adjacent lines, stanzas, phrases. For example:

We do not value earthly happiness,

We are used to valuing people;

We both will not change ourselves,

But they can’t change us.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

Gradation- This is a special grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence with a gradual increase (or decrease) of semantic and emotional significance. For example:

And for him they rose again

And deity and inspiration,

And life, and tears, and love.

(A.S. Pushkin)

Parallelism- This is a repetition of a type of adjacent sentences or phrases in which the order of the words coincides, at least partially. For example:

I'm bored without you – I yawn;

I feel sad when you are there – I endure…

(A.S. Pushkin)

Inversion - this is a violation of the generally accepted order of words in a sentence, rearrangement of parts of a phrase. For example:

There is no time in the mountains, full of heartfelt thoughts,

Over the sea I eked out a thoughtful laziness…

(A.S. Pushkin)

Ellipsis - this is the omission of individual words (usually easily restored in context) to give the phrase additional dynamism. For example: Afinogenych transported pilgrims less and less often. For whole weeks - no one(A.S. Serafimovich).

Parcellation- an artistic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into separate segments, graphically highlighted as independent proposals. For example: They didn’t even look at the man brought, one of the thousands who were here. Searched. Made measurements. We wrote down the signs(A.S. Serafimovich).

Rhetorical question(appeal, exclamation) – This is a question (address, exclamation) that does not require an answer. Its function is to attract attention and enhance the impression. For example: What's in my name?(A.S. Pushkin)

Asyndeton- deliberate omission of conjunctions to make speech dynamic. For example:

Lure with exquisite attire,

Playing with the eyes, brilliant conversation...

(E. Baratynsky)

Multi-Union- This is the deliberate repetition of conjunctions in order to slow down speech with forced pauses. At the same time, the semantic significance of each word highlighted by the conjunction is emphasized. For example:

And every tongue that is in it will call me,

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now wild

Tungus, and friend of the steppes Kalmyk.

(A.S. Pushkin)

Phraseologisms, synonyms and antonyms are also used as means to enhance the expressiveness of speech.

Phraseological unit, or phraseological unit- This is a stable combination of words that functions in speech as an expression indivisible in terms of meaning and composition: lie on the stove, fight like a fish against ice, day or night.

Synonyms- These are words of the same part of speech, close in meaning. Types of synonyms:

– general language: brave - brave;

– contextual:

You will hear the judgment of a fool and the laughter of a cold crowd:

But you remain firm, calm and gloomy.

(A.S. Pushkin)

Antonyms- These are words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings. Types of antonyms:

– general language: good - evil;

– contextual:

I give up my place to you:

It's time for me to smolder, for you to bloom.

(A.S. Pushkin)

As you know, the meaning of a word is most accurately determined in the context of speech. This allows, in particular, to determine the value polysemantic words, and also to differentiate homonyms(words of the same part of speech that have the same sound or spelling, but have different lexical meanings: tasty fruit is a reliable raft, marriage in work is a happy marriage).

TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.

TRAILS (Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Paths are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of ​​laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is found already in the ancient epic different nations, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially

V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). IN poetic speech hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.

LITOTA ( Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; figurative expression, a turn that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger”, “a hut on chicken legs”, “a little man as big as a finger”.
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.

N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to

comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

By you into the darkness of the night, starless

Careless abandoned man!

A. Blok

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“nerves of steel”), abstraction (“field of activity”), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...

A. Fet

The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...

S. Yesenin

In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widespread in artistic creativity:

Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.

METONYMY (Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;

The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a bountiful feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...

A. Pushkin

Here the metonymy is "swords" - warriors. The most common metonymy is in which the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity:

When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...

A. Pushkin

Here the metonymy is “the pen falls asleep.”

PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)

PERSONALIZATION (prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).

My bells

Steppe flowers!

Why are you looking at me?

Dark blue?

And what are you calling about?

On a merry day in May,

Among the uncut grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...

V. Mayakovsky

2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!

3) Singular in the sense of general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

A. Blok

5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:

We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacement species concept generic:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON – a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds;

The way the beast will howl,

Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of ​​the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - internal state character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:

And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.

A. Pushkin

She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:

The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE - a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Moroz - commander of the patrol

Walks around his possessions.

N.A. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY (Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in cultural traditions tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,

Spewing wild curses on the way.

And I see: half the people are sitting.

Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.

Servant of powerful masters,

With what noble courage

Thunder with your free speech

All those who have their mouths covered.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

An endless and endless dream!

A. Blok

ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, a literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).

ANAPHORA (Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.

You're miserable too

You are also abundant

You're downtrodden

You are omnipotent

Mother Rus'!…

N.A. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis strengthens emotional coloring speech and emphasizes the idea expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis

APOCOPE (Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.

...When suddenly he came out of the forest

The bear opened its mouth at them...

A.N. Krylov

Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,

Human rumor and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

Live for at least another quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.

A. Blok

MULTI-UNION (polysyndeton ) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure is asyndeton.

By slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words, enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...

M. Lermontov

And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION - from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:

I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION (Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.

Legends of deep antiquity

A.S. Pushkin

He passes the doorman with an arrow

Flew up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM (from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

The waves splash in the blue sea.

IN blue sky the stars are shining.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as the mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A . Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly Clouds - Eternal Wanderers.”

Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.

PARCELLATION - an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Nice! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He squinted.”

N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

They shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He's beautiful

He's like God's thunderstorm.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME (Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; consonance of ends poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech and conveys a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. IN artistic speech conveys the excitement of the speaker or the tension of the action:

We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.

V. Zhuko

Day in dark night in love,

Spring is in love with winter,

Life into death...

And you?... You're into me!

G. Heine

In the lyrics there are poems written in unspeakable constructions, that is, with extensive use of ellipsis, for example, A. Fet’s poem “Whisper, timid breathing...”

EPITHET (Greek epitheton - application) - a figurative definition that gives additional artistic description to someone or something (“lonely sail”, “golden grove”),

a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities or characteristics.
The attribute expressed by the epithet seems to be attached to the object, enriching it semantically and emotionally. This property of the epithet is used when creating an artistic image:

But I love, golden spring,
Your continuous, wonderfully mixed noise;
You rejoice, without stopping for a moment,
Like a child without care or thoughts...

N. Nekrasov

The properties of an epithet appear in a word only when it is combined with another word denoting an object or phenomenon. So, in the example given, the words “golden” and “wonderfully mixed” acquire the properties of a synthetic in combination with the words “spring” and “noise”. Epithets are possible that not only define an object or emphasize certain aspects, but also transfer to it from another object or phenomenon (not directly expressed) a new, additional quality:

And we, poet, haven’t figured it out,
Didn't understand infantile sadness
In your seemingly forged poems.

V. Bryusov.

Such epithets are called metaphorical. An epithet emphasizes in an object not only its inherent, but also possible, conceivable, transferred features and characteristics. Various (meaningful) parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb) can be used as an epithet.
A special group of epithet includes constant epithets, which are used only in combination with one specific word: “living water” or “dead water”, “good fellow”, “greyhound horse”, etc. Constant epithets are characteristic of works of oral folk art .

EPIPHORA (Greek epiphora - repetition) - stylistic figure, opposite anaphora : repetition last words or phrases. Rhyme - type of epiphora (repetition of the last sounds).

The guests came ashore

Tsar Saltan invites them to visit...

A. S. Pushkin

RHETORICAL QUESTION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, such a structure of speech, mainly poetic, in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not presuppose an answer; it only enhances the emotionality of the statement and its expressiveness.

RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, a structure of speech in which this or that concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation. The rhetorical exclamation sounds emotional, with poetic inspiration and elation:

Yes, to love as our blood loves
None of you have been in love for a long time!

A. Blok

RHETORICAL APPEAL(from Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures. In form, being an appeal, rhetorical appeal is conditional. It imparts the necessary author’s intonation to poetic speech: solemnity, pathos, cordiality, irony, etc.:

And you, arrogant descendants
The famous meanness of the famous fathers...

M. Lermontov

DEFAULT - unspokenness, reticence. A deliberate break in a statement that conveys the emotion of the speech and assumes that the reader will guess what was said.

I do not love, O Rus', your timid
Thousands of years of slave poverty.
But this cross, but this ladle is white...
Humble, dear features!

Although he was afraid to say
It wouldn't be hard to guess
Whenever... but the heart, the younger,
The more fearful, the stricter...

Every house is foreign to me, every temple is empty to me,

And everything is equal, and everything is one.

But if on the road– bush

Stands up, especially - rowan…

M.I. Tsvetaeva

VERSE SIZES

JAMB - two-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable

HOREUS – disyllabic foot with stress on the first syllable

DACTYL – three-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable

AMPHIBRACHIUS – three-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable

ANAPAEST – three-syllable foot with stress on the third syllable

PYRRHIC – additional disyllabic foot, consisting of two unstressed syllables

SPONDEE – an additional foot consisting of two stressed syllables

RHYME

abab – cross, aabb - steam room, abba - ring (encircling), aabssb - mixed

MEN'S – stress falls on the last syllable of rhyming words

WOMEN'S – stress falls on the penultimate syllable of rhyming words

Perhaps the most confusing and most complex topic for those who are not friends with literature and verbal figures. If you've never been impressed classical literature, and especially poetry, then, perhaps, familiarity with this topic will allow you to look at many works through the eyes of the author and generate interest in the artistic word.

Paths - verbal turns

Paths make speech brighter and more expressive, more interesting and richer. These are words and their combinations used in a figurative sense, which is why the very expressiveness of the text appears. Paths help convey various shades of emotions, recreate true images and pictures in the mind of the reader; with their help, masters of words evoke certain associations in the mind of the reader.

Along with the syntactic means of language, tropes (related to lexical means) are quite a powerful weapon in the literary sphere. It is worth paying attention to the fact that many tropes have moved from the literary language into colloquial speech. We have become so accustomed to them that we have ceased to notice the indirect meaning of such words, which is why they have lost their expressiveness. It’s a common occurrence: tropes are so “hackneyed” in colloquial speech that they become cliches and cliches. The once expressive phrases " black gold", "brilliant mind", "golden hands".

Classification of tropes

In order to understand and clearly clarify which words and expressions, in what context, are classified as figurative and expressive means of language, let us turn to the following table.

From the examples it becomes clear that the figurative and expressive means of language, namely tropes, are used not only in works of art, but also in living spoken language. You don’t have to be a poet to have competent, rich, expressive speech. It's enough to have a good one vocabulary and the ability to express thoughts outside the box. Saturate your vocabulary by reading quality literature, it is extremely useful.

Visual means of phonetics

Paths are only part of the arsenal of artistic means of expression. What is intended to specifically influence our hearing is called phonetic figurative and expressive means of language. Once you understand the essence of the phonetic component of the artistry of a language, you begin to look at many things with different eyes. Comes to understand the play on words in poetry school curriculum, once studied “through force,” the poetics and beauty of the syllable are revealed.

Consider examples of use phonetic means expressiveness is best based on classical Russian literature, this is the richest source of alliteration and assonance, as well as other types of sound writing. But it would be wrong to think that examples of figurative and expressive means of language are not found in contemporary art. Advertising, journalism, songs and poems by modern performers, proverbs, sayings, tongue twisters - all this is an excellent basis for searching for figures of speech and tropes, you just need to learn to hear and see them.

Alliteration, assonance and others

Alliteration is the repetition of identical consonants or their combinations in a poem, which gives the verse sound expressiveness, brightness, and originality. For example, the sound [z] in Vladimir Mayakovsky’s “Cloud in Pants”:

You came in

sharp, like “here!”

mucha suede gloves,

“You know -

I'm getting married."

or right there:

I'll strengthen myself.

See -

how calm!

Like the pulse of a dead man.

Remember?...

And here is a modern example for us. From the singer Utah (“Fall”):

I will smoke and eat bread,

Staring at the dusty lampshade in the hallway...

Assonance is a specially organized repetition of consonant sounds (usually in poetic text), which gives the verse musicality, harmony, and songfulness. Masterfully crafted phonetic technique can convey the atmosphere, setting, state of mind and even surrounding sounds. Vladimir Mayakovsky’s carefully crafted assonance carries a tinge of fluid hopelessness:

Your son is beautifully sick!

His heart is on fire.

Tell your sisters

Lyuda and Ole,—

he has nowhere to go.

In any poem, Vladimir Vladimirovich combines figurative and expressive means of a phonetic nature with tropes and syntactic figures. This is the author's uniqueness.

Pun rhymes are combinations of words and sounds based on the similarity of sounds.

The realm of rhymes is my element,

And I write poetry easily,

Without hesitation, without delay

I run to line from line,

Even to the Finnish brown rocks

I'm making a pun.

D. D. Minaev

Syntactic means of expressiveness in language

Epiphora and anaphora, inversion, parcellation and a number of other syntactic means help the master of verbal art to saturate his works with expressiveness, creating an individual style, character, and rhythm.

Some syntactic devices enhance the expressiveness of speech and logically highlight what the author wants to emphasize. Others add dynamism and tension to the narrative, or, conversely, make you stop and think, re-read and feel. Many writers and poets have their own individual style, based specifically on syntax. Suffice it to recall A. Blok:

"Night, street, lantern, pharmacy"

or A. Akhmatova:

"Twenty-one. Night. Monday"

The individual author's style consists, of course, not only of syntax, there is a whole set of all components: semantic, linguistic, as well as rhythm and vision of reality. And yet, an important role is played by what figurative and expressive means of language the artist prefers.

Syntax to aid artistic expression

Inversion (rearrangement, reversal) is the reverse or non-standard order of words in a sentence. In prose it is used to semantically highlight any part of a sentence. In poetic form it is sometimes necessary to create rhyme, focusing attention on the most important points. In Marina Tsvetaeva’s poem “An Attempt of Jealousy,” the inversion conveys an emotional breakdown:

How are you doing - are you healthy -

Maybe? Sung - how?

With the ulcer of an immortal conscience

How are you coping, poor man?

A. S. Pushkin considered inversion to be perhaps the most important means of poetic expression; his poems are mostly inversion, which is why they are so musical, expressive, and simple.

Rhetorical question in literary text it is one that does not require an answer.

The day was innocent and the wind was fresh.

The dark stars went out.

- Grandmother! - This brutal rebellion

In my heart - isn't it from you?..

A. Akhmatova

In Marina Tsvetaeva’s lyrics, her favorite devices were the rhetorical question and the rhetorical exclamation:

I'll ask for a chair, I'll ask for a bed:

“Why, why do I suffer and suffer?”

I learned to live in the fire itself,

He threw it himself - into the frozen steppe!

That's what you, dear, did to me!

My dear, what have I done to you?

Epiphora, anaphora, ellipse

Anaphora is the repetition of similar or identical sounds, words, phrases at the beginning of each line, stanza, sentence. Classic example- Yesenin's poems:

I didn't know that love is an infection

I didn't know that love is a plague...

Oh, wait. I don't scold her.

Oh, wait. I don't curse her...

Epiphora - repetition of the same elements at the end of phrases, stanzas, lines.

Foolish heart, don't beat!

We are all deceived by happiness,

The beggar only asks for participation...

Foolish heart, don't beat.

Both stylistic figures more characteristic of poetry than prose. Such techniques are found in all types and genres of literature, including oral folk art, which is very natural, given its specificity.

An ellipse is an omission in a literary text of any linguistic unit (it is easy to restore), while the meaning of the phrase does not suffer.

What yesterday is waist-deep,

Suddenly - to the stars.

(Exaggerated, that is:

Full height.)

M. Tsvetaeva

This gives dynamism, conciseness, and highlights the desired element intonationally in the sentence.

In order to clearly navigate the diversity of linguistic figures and professionally understand the name of a visual and expressive means, you need experience, knowledge of theory and language disciplines.

The main thing is not to overdo it

If you perceive surrounding information through the prism linguistic means expressiveness, one can come to the conclusion that even colloquial speech refers to them quite often. It is not necessary to know the name of a figurative and expressive means of language in order to use it in speech. Rather, it happens unintentionally, unnoticed. It’s another matter when you have the means mass media Various figures of speech flow in like a stream, both appropriate and not so appropriate. The abuse of tropes, stylistic devices, and other means of expressiveness makes speech difficult to perceive and oversaturated. Journalism and advertising are especially guilty of this, apparently because they deliberately use the power of language to influence the audience. The poet, in the rush of the creative process, does not think about what visual and expressive means to use; this is a spontaneous, “emotional” process.

Language is the most powerful tool in the hands of the classics

Each era leaves its mark on the language and its visual arts. Pushkin's language is far from Mayakovsky's creative style. The poetics of Tsvetaeva’s legacy differs sharply from the unique texts of Vladimir Vysotsky. The poetic language of A. S. Pushkin is permeated with epithets, metaphors, personifications, I. A. Krylov is a fan of allegory, hyperbole, and irony. Each writer has his own style, created by him in creative process, in which his favorite visual arts play an important role

When we talk about art and literary creativity, we are focused on the impressions that are created when reading. They are largely determined by the imagery of the work. In fiction and poetry, there are special techniques for enhancing expressiveness. Competent presentation public speaking– they also need ways to build expressive speech.

For the first time, the concept of rhetorical figures, figures of speech, appeared among speakers ancient Greece. In particular, Aristotle and his followers were involved in their study and classification. Delving into the details, scientists have identified up to 200 varieties that enrich the language.

Means of expressive speech are divided into language level to:

• phonetic;
• lexical;
• syntactic.

The use of phonetics is traditional for poetry. The poem is often dominated by musical sounds, giving poetic speech a special melodiousness. In the drawing of a verse, stress, rhythm and rhyme, and combinations of sounds are used for emphasis.

Anaphora– repetition of sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. “The golden stars dozed off...” – repetition initial sounds Yesenin used phonetic anaphora.

And here is an example of lexical anaphora in Pushkin’s poems:

Alone you rush across the clear azure,
You alone cast a dull shadow,
You alone sadden the jubilant day.

Epiphora- a similar technique, but much less common, in which words or phrases are repeated at the end of lines or sentences.

The use of lexical devices associated with a word, lexeme, as well as phrases and sentences, syntax, is considered as a tradition of literary creativity, although it is also widely found in poetry.

Conventionally, all means of expressiveness of the Russian language can be divided into tropes and stylistic figures.

Trails

Tropes are the use of words and phrases in a figurative sense. Paths make speech more figurative, enliven and enrich it. Some tropes and their examples in literary work are listed below.

Epithet- artistic definition. Using it, the author gives the word additional emotional overtones and his own assessment. To understand how an epithet differs from an ordinary definition, you need to understand when reading whether the definition gives a new connotation to the word? Here's a simple test. Compare: late autumn – golden autumn, early spring- young spring, quiet breeze - gentle breeze.

Personification- transferring the characteristics of living beings to inanimate objects, nature: “The gloomy rocks looked sternly...”.

Comparison– direct comparison of one object or phenomenon with another. “The night is gloomy, like a beast...” (Tyutchev).

Metaphor– transferring the meaning of one word, object, phenomenon to another. Identifying similarities, implicit comparison.

“There is a red rowan fire burning in the garden...” (Yesenin). The rowan brushes remind the poet of the flame of a fire.

Metonymy– renaming. Transferring a property or meaning from one object to another according to the principle of contiguity. “The one in felt, let’s argue” (Vysotsky). In felt (material) - in a felt hat.

Synecdoche- a type of metonymy. Transferring the meaning of one word to another based on a quantitative connection: singular - plural, part - whole. “We all look at Napoleons” (Pushkin).

Irony- the use of a word or expression in an inverted, mocking sense. For example, the appeal to the Donkey in Krylov’s fable: “Are you crazy, smart one?”

Hyperbola- a figurative expression containing exorbitant exaggeration. It may concern size, meaning, strength, and other qualities. Litota is, on the contrary, an exorbitant understatement. Hyperbole is often used by writers and journalists, and litotes is much less common. Examples. Hyperbole: “The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns” (V.V. Mayakovsky). Litota: “a little man with a fingernail.”

Allegory- a specific image, scene, image, object that visually represents an abstract idea. The role of allegory is to suggest subtext, to force one to search hidden meaning when reading. Widely used in fable.

Alogism– deliberate violation of logical connections for the purpose of irony. “That landowner was stupid, he read the newspaper “Vest” and his body was soft, white and crumbly.” (Saltykov-Shchedrin). The author deliberately mixes logically heterogeneous concepts in the enumeration.

Grotesque– a special technique, a combination of hyperbole and metaphor, a fantastic surreal description. An outstanding master of Russian grotesque was N. Gogol. His story “The Nose” is based on the use of this technique. A special impression when reading this work is made by the combination of the absurd with the ordinary.

Figures of speech

Stylistic figures are also used in literature. Their main types are shown in the table:

Test "Means of Artistic Expression"

To test your understanding of the material, take a short test.

Read the following passage:

“There the war smelled of gasoline and soot, burnt iron and gunpowder, it scraped with caterpillar tracks, screeched from machine guns and fell into the snow, and rose again under fire...”

What means of artistic expression are used in the excerpt from K. Simonov’s novel?

Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts.

Drumming, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,

And death and hell on all sides.

A. Pushkin

The answer to the test is given at the end of the article.

Expressive language is, first of all, an internal image that arises when reading a book, listening to an oral presentation, or a presentation. To manipulate images, visual techniques are needed. There are enough of them in the great and mighty Russian. Use them, and the listener or reader will find their own image in your speech pattern.

Study expressive language and its laws. Determine for yourself what is missing in your performances, in your drawing. Think, write, experiment, and your language will become an obedient tool and your weapon.

Answer to the test

K. Simonov. The personification of war in the passage. Metonymy: howling soldiers, equipment, battlefield - the author ideologically connects them into a generalized image of war. The techniques of expressive language used are polyunion, syntactic repetition, parallelism. Through this combination of stylistic techniques when reading, a revived, rich image of war is created.

A. Pushkin. The poem lacks conjunctions in the first lines. In this way the tension and richness of the battle are conveyed. In the phonetic drawing of the scene special role plays the sound “r” in different combinations. When reading, a rumbling, growling background appears, ideologically conveying the noise of battle.

If you were unable to give the correct answers while answering the test, do not be upset. Just re-read the article.

Means of expression are special artistic and rhetorical techniques, lexical and grammatical means language that attracts attention to the statement. They are used to give speech expression, emotionality, clarity, and make it more interesting and convincing. Means of expression have long been considered as an important component rhetorical canon(see Chapter 4).

The means of expression are trails And figures.

Trails- these are figures of speech based on the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning (epithet, comparison, metaphor, etc.). Figures of speech, or rhetorical figures are special forms syntactic constructions, with the help of which the expressiveness of speech is enhanced, the degree of its impact on the addressee (repetition, antithesis, rhetorical question, etc.). Tropes are based on verbal imagery, while figures are based on syntactic imagery.

There are several main types of tropes.

I. Comparison- a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three components: firstly, that which is compared, secondly, that with which it is compared, and thirdly, that on the basis of which one is compared with another. As an example, we can cite the statement of the famous physiologist I. P. Pavlov: “Like the perfect wing of a bird, it could never lift it up without relying on the air. Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to fly. Without your “theories” are empty attempts.”

II. Epithet - an artistic definition that makes it possible to more vividly characterize the qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enriches the content of the statement. For example, geologist A.E. Fersman uses epithets to describe precious stones: a brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright, dazzling greenery; bright golden “peridot” of the Urals, a beautiful sparkling demantoid stone; a whole range of tones connects faintly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines.

III. Metaphor - this is the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in shape, color, function, etc.): “golden autumn”, “dead silence”, “ iron will", "sea of ​​flowers". Metaphor is also called a figurative designation in artistic, poetic speech or in journalism of any object or phenomenon based on its similarity with another object or phenomenon: sharks of capitalism, political games, score points, nationalist card, paralysis of power , dollar injection. A metaphor should be distinguished from a comparison, which is usually formalized using the conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if” or can be expressed in the instrumental case of a noun. A successful metaphor activates perception and is well remembered:

The dome of the museum rises two steps away, below boils[Zanlavskaya Square - I made a rather large circle (L. Kabakov. Everything can be fixed).

“And in general,” said Perkhushkov, choking with melancholy, “how scary and difficult it is to live in the world, friends! What dramas, collisions, hurricanes, storms, tornadoes, cyclones, anticyclones, typhoons, punamis, mistrals, barguzins, khamsins and boreas, not speaking of longenfengs, they happen at every step in our spiritual life!” (T. Tolstaya. Limpopo).

The Shcherbinsky case became the “uranium rod” that, being lowered into our Russian political reactor, will start the process of fission of the civilian nucleus (“Results”. 2006. M 13).

In literary and journalistic texts, an extended metaphor can be used, which is based on several associations of similarity:

The ship of your health has run aground. It needs to be towed, refloated, and then, when there is free water under its keel, it will float on its own. Medicines are a tug, free water is time, and the ability to swim on your own is restored adaptive capabilities (advertising).

Metaphors play a significant role in shaping the picture of the world. Famous explorer political rhetoric A.P. Chudinov proceeds from the fact that the system of metaphors is a kind of key to understanding the spirit of the times. He explored the following basic metaphors of modern Russian reality: criminal ("political showdowns"), militaristic ("opposition camp", "show a united front"), medical ("paralysis of power", "separatism syndrome"), gaming ("nationalist card" , "gain points"), sports ("come to the finish line", "pick up speed").

The idea that the type of politician can be determined by the nature of his speech behavior, in particular by the metaphorical models that he chooses, has become firmly established in the public consciousness. For example, the persistence of the militaristic model “Russia is a military camp” is explained by the fact that numerous wars have influenced all generations of Russians. This model provokes the verbal deployment of the scenario “War and all its varieties”: informational, psychological warfare, election campaign, ideological, pre-election front, go on the offensive, all-round defense, smoke screen, take revenge, state of siege, economic blockade, ordinary party soldiers. The militaristic metaphor is dangerous because it simplifies reality, imposing alternatives: either enemy - or friend, or black - or white.

IV. Metonymy based on contiguity. If, when creating a metaphor, two objects, phenomena, actions must be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy, two objects or phenomena that receive the same name must be adjacent, closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the names of capitals to mean “government of the country”, the words “audience”, “class”, “school”, “apartment”, “house”, “factory”, “collective farm” to designate people, naming a product made of material as the same as the material itself (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay), for example: Moscow is preparing a return visit; London has not yet made a final decision; Negotiations between Moscow and Washington; Five houses in our area have changed management companies; Our athletes received gold and silver, bronze went to the French.

V. Paraphrase - replacing a word with a descriptive expression that allows you to characterize any features of what is being said. Often the basis of periphrases is metaphorical transfer. Paraphrases are often found in the media. Successful, fresh paraphrases help to enliven speech, help avoid repetition, and enhance emotional assessment: earthquake - “underground storm”, forest - “green wealth”, forest (forests) - “lungs of the planet”, journalists - “fourth estate”, AIDS - “plague of the 20th century”, chess - “mind gymnastics”, Sweden - "land of the Vikings", St. Petersburg - "Venice of the North", Japan - "land of the rising sun".

VI. Hyperbole - this is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, phenomenon, object or its properties; it is used to enhance the artistic impression, emotional impact(“He ran faster than lightning”; “The berries this year grew as big as a fist”; “He’s so thin, he’s like a skeleton”). Due to the hyperbole, the subject of the speech appears exceptional, often incredible: “From the Urals to the Danube, to the big river, swaying and sparkling, the regiments are moving” (M. Lermontov). Hyperbole is actively used both in commercial advertising to exaggerate the functional qualities and aesthetic properties of goods and services (“Bounty is a heavenly delight”), and in propaganda (“fateful decisions”, “the only guarantor of the Constitution”, “evil empire”).

VII. Litota - a trope that is the opposite of hyperbole and consists of a deliberate weakening, downplaying of the property or attribute that is being spoken about (“a little guy”, “two steps from here”, “wait a second”).

VIII. Irony - using a name or even an entire statement in the opposite of its literal sense, deliberately stating the opposite of what the speaker actually thinks. The highest degree of irony - sarcasm. Irony is usually revealed not formally, but on the basis of background knowledge or context (“Listen to this intellectual: now he will dot all the i’s” - about a poorly educated, narrow-minded person; “Well, how could this man of honor break the law” - about a swindler).

IX. Among the rhetorical figures stands out repeat, intended primarily to demonstrate strong feeling. Often this is simply a repetition of a certain word. Here is an example of using the repetition technique in a speech by D. S. Likhachev:

Russian culture, simply because it includes the cultures of a dozen other peoples and has long been associated with the neighboring cultures of Scandinavia, Byzantium, the southern and western Slavs, Germany, Italy, the peoples of the East and the Caucasus, is a universal culture and tolerant of the cultures of others peoples This last feature was clearly characterized by Dostoevsky in his famous speech at the Pushkin celebrations. But Russian culture is also European because it has always been, at its deepest core, devoted to the idea of ​​personal freedom... ("O

There are several types of repetition.

1. Anaphora - repetition of words at the beginning of adjacent segments of speech. For example: “give yourself the unique grace of French makeup, give yourself a piece of French charm.” The famous speech of Martin Luther King, a fighter for the rights of the black population in the United States, is built on the anaphora “I have a dream.” Another example of anaphora is a fragment of an article famous poet V. I. Ivanova “Thoughts on Symbolism”:

So, I am not a symbolist if I do not, with an elusive hint or influence in the listener’s heart, evoke indescribable sensations, sometimes similar to an initial memory... sometimes like a distant, vague premonition, sometimes like the thrill of someone’s familiar and desired approach...

I am not a symbolist...if my words do not directly convince him of the existence of hidden life where his mind did not suspect life; if my words do not move in him the energy of love for that which until then he did not know how to love, because his love did not know how many abodes it has.

I am not a symbolist, if my words are equal...

2. Epiphora - This is the repetition of words at the ends of adjacent segments of speech. As an example, we can cite a fragment of the speech of American President F. D. Roosevelt “On Four Freedoms”:

In the future... we will see a world built on the basis of the four inalienable freedoms of man. The first of these is freedom of speech anywhere in the world. The second is freedom of religious cultures everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which... means mutual understanding in the sphere of economic relations, ensuring for each state a peaceful, prosperous life for its citizens everywhere in the world. The fourth freedom is freedom from fear, which... means the reduction of armaments throughout the world to such an extent that no state will be able to commit an act of aggression against any of its neighbors anywhere in the world.

• 3. Joint - This is the repetition of words on the boundaries of adjacent segments within a sentence or on the border of sentences. For example: “Only here, here and nowhere else”; “This cannot but be called a crime. Other actions of the authorities should also be called a crime.”
• 4. Syntactic parallelism - this is a repeat of the same type syntactic units in the same syntactic positions. Let us give an example of the use of this figure by Academician D. S. Likhachev:

Let us have heroes of the spirit, ascetics who give themselves to serve the sick, children, the poor, other nations, saints, finally. Let our country again be the birthplace of Oriental studies, the country of “small nations”, their preservation in the “Red Book of Humanity”. Let the unconscious desire to devote oneself entirely to some holy cause, which has so distinguished Russians at all times, again take its rightful place (“O national character of Russians").

Syntactic parallelism is also used in advertising: Children build for fun, you build for them.

Syntactic parallelism may be accompanied by an antithesis: “A strong governor - great rights, a weak governor - no rights; a public politician - the republic is known in the country, a non-public politician - no one knows about it.”

X. Antithesis - a figure based on the opposition of compared concepts, for example in proverbs and sayings: “A smart person will teach, a fool will get bored”; "It's easy to make friends, hard to be separated." The antithesis was used by Cicero in his famous speech against Senator Catiline:

A sense of honor fights on our side, arrogance on the other side; here - modesty, there - debauchery; here - fidelity, there - deception; here - valor, there - crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - a shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, all virtues fight injustice, corruption, laziness, recklessness, and all sorts of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes- with complete hopelessness.

XI. Inversion - rearranging parts of a sentence, breaking the usual word order to emphasize certain words. This is often associated with cases where the predicate comes before the subject in order to highlight new information in the sentence. For example: “Spring evenings are nice”; “History is made by people, and not by some objective laws of history”; “The whole team honored the hero of the day”; “No matter how difficult it is, we must do it.” Inversion can also be used for stylization: “We sit at long, oak, uncovered tables. The servants serve rusk kvass, daily cabbage soup, rye bread, boiled beef with onions and buckwheat porridge.” (V. Sorokin. Day of the Oprichnik).

XII. Parcellation - this is the division of the original utterance into two or more independent, intonationally isolated segments, for example: “They know. They remember. They believe”; “A person was always beautiful if his name sounded proud. When he was a fighter. When he was a discoverer. When he was daring. When he did not give in to difficulties and did not fall to his knees in the face of trouble”; "He went too. To the store. To buy apples."

Parcelation usually serves to convey the features of living things in written text. oral speech and is actively used in fiction and journalism: “But she didn’t get sick. She lied. But there are lies, and there are lies. And only a strong opponent should lie, and then the lie is an event. You can lie and die. Or kill. lies, nothing changes in you. Neither decreases nor increases..." (A. Gosteva. Daughter of a samurai).

Parcelation is impossible in official business and scientific speech.

XIII. Rhetorical question- a question-exclamation that does not require an answer, but conveys a message about something: “Do you think that I don’t know this?”; “Is there another city like ours!”; “What does this mean?... The famous reformer, the “architect of reforms,” could not do anything against the adoption of the law. How can we trust such a country now?

D. S. Likhachev uses a whole complex of rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical questions in his speech “On the National Character of Russians”:

There was legislation, "Russian Truth". “Code of Law”, “Code”, which defended the character and dignity of the individual. Is this not enough? Isn't it enough for us? popular movement to the East in search of freedom from the state and a happy Belovodsk kingdom? ...Do not constant riots and such leaders of these riots as Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev and many others testify to the ineradicable desire for personal freedom? And the northern fires, in which hundreds and thousands of people burned themselves in the name of loyalty to their beliefs! What other uprising can we contrast with the Decembrist one, in which the leaders of the uprising acted against their property, estate and class interests, but in the name of social and political justice? And the village gatherings, which the authorities were constantly forced to reckon with! And all Russian literature, which has strived for social justice for a thousand years!

Traditional means of expression that have been perfected over centuries are still today the most important means creating effective, impactful speech, but only skillful, proportionate and appropriate use of them will avoid artificiality and false pathos.