The immediate and most obvious result of the Second World War was gigantic destruction and loss of life. The war devastated entire countries, reduced cities and villages to ruins, and led to the death of many millions of people. The greatest human losses - 26.6 million people - were suffered by the Soviet Union. Germany and its European allies lost, according to various estimates, from 8 to 13 million people. At least 6 million Polish citizens, 6 million Jews, 2–3 million Japanese, and 1.7 million residents of Yugoslavia died.
China's military losses amount to approximately 5 million people, and in total, about 18 million people died in China during the war years - mainly from hunger and disease. Losses of indigenous Asian and African countries, on whose territory military operations were carried out: Burma, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaya, Tunisia, Syria, Ethiopia, Somalia - no one counted. The military losses of France, the USA and Great Britain were relatively small: 635 thousand killed in France, about 300 thousand in the USA, over 400 thousand in Great Britain. England suffered greatly aerial bombings; There was no military destruction in the United States. Relative to the total population, the heaviest casualties were suffered by Poland (17.2%), the Soviet Union (13.5%) and Yugoslavia (11%).
However, the results of World War II are not limited to losses and destruction. As a result of the war, the face of the world changed: new borders and new states appeared, new trends emerged social development, major inventions and discoveries were made.
The war gave a strong impetus to the development of science and technology. Radar, jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, antibiotics, electronic computers and many other inventions and discoveries were made or came into widespread use during the war. The beginning of mastery dates back to wartime atomic energy, thanks to which the twentieth century. often called the atomic age. It was then that the foundations of the scientific and technological revolution were laid, which transformed and continues to transform the post-war world.
The main political result of World War II was the victory over the fascist aggressors. Countries and peoples threatened by fascism defended their independence and freedom. Aggressive states: Germany, Italy, Japan and their allies were defeated. Their armed forces, economy, politics, ideology suffered complete collapse; their leaders were brought to justice, and they received their well-deserved punishment.
The ideology of fascism, Nazism, racism, and colonialism has completely discredited itself; on the contrary, the ideas of anti-fascism, anti-colonialism, democracy, and socialism gained wide popularity. The human and civil rights enshrined in the UN Charter have received international recognition. Members of the Resistance and former front-line soldiers gained enormous authority. They provided great influence on social and political life, entered the elite of society, and in some countries - came to power. The influence of parties and groups fighting for democracy and social transformation - communists, socialists, social democrats, Christian democrats and other democratic forces - increased sharply. The measures they proposed: the nationalization of industry and banks, the transfer of land to those who cultivate it, the participation of workers in production management, the creation of a comprehensive social insurance system - found a wide response among the population. In many countries, including Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Holland, socialist, social democratic and Christian democratic parties have become the leading political force and headed governments.
Communist parties have grown and strengthened significantly. In France, the Communist Party became the largest political party, in Italy the communists took over the leadership of the largest trade unions. They were part of the government, millions of voters voted for them.
In addition to Italy and France, in seven more countries Western Europe(Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Finland, Luxembourg) and in four Latin American countries (Chile, Cuba, Costa Rica, Ecuador) communists in the first post-war years also participated in governments.
Major reforms were carried out in many countries: partial nationalization of industry and banks, the creation of a state social insurance system, expansion of workers' rights, in some places (in Germany, Italy, Japan) land reforms. A number of countries, including France, Italy, Germany, and Japan, adopted new, democratic constitutions. There has been a profound renewal of society; democratization of state and public institutions.
A very important result and consequence of the Second World War was the collapse of the colonial system. Before the war, the vast majority of the world's population lived in colonies, the area and population of which were many times larger than the metropolitan countries: Great Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, Japan. During the Second World War and especially after its end, some dependent and colonial countries: Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Burma, the Philippines, Korea - declared themselves independent. In 1947, India became virtually independent, divided into two dominions: India and Pakistan. A rapid process of liberation of the colonial peoples began, which continued until the complete liquidation of the colonies in the second half of the century.
As a result of the war, the balance of power in the world changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan, which before the war were among the great powers, having been defeated, temporarily turned into dependent countries occupied by foreign troops. Their economy was destroyed by the war, and for a number of years they were unable to compete with their former competitors. Compared to pre-war times The positions of France and even Great Britain were significantly weakened. Of all the great capitalist powers, only the United States of America emerged from the war significantly stronger. Far ahead of all other countries economically and militarily, the United States has become the sole leader of the capitalist world, a giant “superpower” claiming global leadership.
The second “superpower” was the Soviet Union. Having won, despite colossal casualties and destruction, having played decisive role In the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union increased its power and international authority to an unprecedented degree. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the world's largest land army and enormous industrial potential, surpassing that of any other country except the United States. The armed forces of the USSR were located in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in East Germany and North Korea. The Soviet Union was unconditionally supported by all communist parties, whose influence greatly increased due to their participation in the fight against fascism. A significant part of world public opinion saw in the USSR not only the winner of the fascist aggressors, but also a country paving the way to a socialist future.
A number of countries liberated by the Soviet Union took the path of non-capitalist development. After liberation from the occupiers in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, people's democratic governments were created with the participation or under the leadership of communists, which began to carry out deep social transformation. In accordance with the Yalta agreements, these countries were tacitly considered the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union and were actually under its control.
Similar transformations were carried out in East Germany and North Korea, occupied by Soviet troops. In China, after the victory over the government of Chiang Kai-shek in the Civil War of 1945-1949. The communists also came to power.
If the United States of America became the leader of the capitalist world, then the Soviet Union led the social forces that opposed capitalism. Two main poles of attraction for world forces have emerged, conventionally called East and West; Two ideological and military-political blocs began to form, the confrontation of which largely determined the structure of the post-war - bipolar - world.
First public signal Churchill’s speech, which he delivered on March 5, 1946 in the American city of Fulton in the presence of US President Truman, is considered to be such a confrontation. In this famous speech, Churchill publicly repeated the thoughts that he confidentially expressed to Eden and Truman at the end of the war.
At Fulton, Churchill said that the Soviet Union had divided Europe with an "iron curtain", established a "tyranny" in its sphere of influence, was driven by "expansionist tendencies" and wanted "the limitless spread of its power and its doctrines." He called for opposition to the USSR “with all the strength of the countries that speak English” and have a monopoly on atomic weapons. Stalin immediately responded that Churchill’s position “is an orientation toward war, a call for war with the USSR.” A fierce controversy erupted with mutual accusations in the preparation new war, which for many years remained the dominant feature of social and political life, determined the main content of international relations.
The anti-fascist coalition split. Its participants began to fight each other, and the Cold War began, which lasted for more than 45 years, until the collapse of the USSR, the collapse of the socialist states and the bipolar world system.
The post-war world turned out to be different from the pre-war one. The border between them was drawn by the Second World War, the most grandiose event in the history of the 20th century.
Other chapters from this book
- World War II was the biggest, most destructive and most bloody war, known history. In its scale it far surpassed all wars of the past, including Hundred Years' War XIV-XV centuries, Thirty Years' War XVII century, Napoleonic wars began...
Immediate results and further consequences the largest military conflict in human history - .
Mobilization
Formally, 72 states took part in the war (80% of the population Globe). In reality, military operations covered the territory of about 40 countries - almost all of Europe, North Africa, part of the Middle East, China, Southeast Asia, Pacific coast from northern Australia to Alaska. At the same time, the war is Far East began already in 1937 (the Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945). 110 million people were mobilized into the armed forces. Up to 65 million people died, of which up to 27 million people died at the fronts. The USSR lost more than 8.9 million military personnel and from 11 to 18 million civilians. Germany - about 5 million military and about one and a half million civilians. China - 3.8 million military and from 8 to 30 million civilians. Japan - almost 2 million military and 690 thousand civilians. Poland - 425 thousand military and 5.6 million civilians. France - 253 thousand military and 412 thousand civilians. Great Britain - more than 286 thousand military and 96.7 thousand civilians. USA - 405.4 thousand military and 3 thousand civilians.
Economics of War
Military expenses and military losses amounted to 4 trillion dollars, which amounted to 60-70% of the national income of the warring states. By the end of the war huge space from Stalingrad to Normandy was destroyed. However, the restoration of destroyed industry and housing became a huge market that contributed to the economic recovery in the late 40s. The second factor in this rise was the arms race. The main states participating in the war have so increased military production that stable military-industrial complexes arose, which continued to exist in the victorious countries in the future.
International relations
The diplomatic and state-political results of the war in Europe were summed up at the Potsdam Conference on July 17 - August 2, 1945. Germany and Austria were occupied by the Allies and divided into occupation zones of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France. Berlin was also divided between them. The Allies developed their policy towards Germany, which was called the “four Ds”: denazification (liquidation of all Nazi organizations, trial of war criminals and banning Nazis from holding public office); democratization (restoration of civil liberties, multi-party elections, separation of powers); demilitarization (complete disarmament of Germany and liquidation of the country's military industry) and decentralization (liquidation of national control centers, strengthening of self-government, liquidation of monopolistic associations). These measures, the implementation of which was supervised by the Allied Control Council, were supposed to prevent a revival of the threat of war from Germany, which was supposed to become a unified democratic state.
The conference defined new boundaries in Europe. All German acquisitions after 1938 were cancelled. East Prussia moved away from Germany to the USSR and Poland. Koenigsberg became Russian city Kaliningrad is the capital of the Kaliningrad region of the RSFSR. Poland received other compensation for the territories ceded to the USSR in 1939. The Polish-German border was moved west to the Oder and Neisse rivers. The mass expulsion of Germans from the territories of Poland and Czechoslovakia began.
Denazification of Germany
Germany had to pay for the destruction caused by the Nazis. Reparations were set at $20 billion, half of which was to be received by the USSR. The allies agreed to extradite to each other (repatriate) those citizens who found themselves in someone else's zone of occupation. Under this pretext, Stalin achieved the extradition to the Soviet Union of thousands of people who fled to the West from communist repression.
The initiators of the war were put on trial by the International Tribunal in Nuremberg, which opened on November 20, 1945. Leading officials and military leaders of Nazism were in the dock, of whom 11 were sentenced to death on October 1, 1946 (I. Ribbentrop, W. Keitel, E. Kaltenbrunner, A. Rosenberg, G. Frank, W. Frick, J. Streicher, F. Sauckel, A. Jodl, A. Seyss-Inquart, M. Bormann (in absentia)), G. Goering (committed suicide), 3 - sentenced to life imprisonment (R. Hess, W. Funk, E. Raeder) . K. Doenitz, B. Schirach, A. Speer and K. Neurath received from 10 to 20 years in prison, and J. Schacht, F. Papen, G. Fritsche were acquitted. On October 16, 1946, 10 prominent Nazis were hanged. Nazi and fascist organizations were banned.
Demilitarization of Japan
A similar trial of Japanese war criminals took place in Tokyo from May 3, 1946 to November 12, 1948. Of the 29 accused, Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka and Admiral Osami Nogano died. TO death penalty Koki Hirochi, Seishiro Itagaki, Heichiro Kitura, Iwane Matsui, Yakiro Muto, Hideki Tojo, Kenuzi Doihara were sentenced to hanging and hanged on December 23, 1948. The following were sentenced to life imprisonment: Naoki Hoshino, Sadao Araki, Koitsi Kido, Kunlaki Koigo, Jiro Minami, Takaumo Oki, Hiroshi Osita, Keirio Sato, Shigetiro Shimada, Teiichi Suzuki, Toshio Shiratoru, Yoshijiro Umezu, Okonori Kaya, Shunropu Hata, Kiitsiro Hiranuma , Kingoro Hashimoto. Defendant Shigenori Togo was sentenced to 20 years, and defendant Mamoru Shigemitsu was sentenced to 7 years in prison. The defendant, Shumei Okawa, was declared insane and his case was dismissed until he recovered. Everyone who did not die in prison before 1955 was pardoned.
The fight against fascism
From July 29 to October 15, 1946, the Paris Peace Conference was held, as a result of which peace treaties were concluded with Germany’s allies on February 10, 1947. Italy lost all its colonies, the rest of Germany's allies suffered small territorial losses compared to 1938 (the acquisitions of 1938-1941 were cancelled) and were obliged to pay reparations. After this, Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria and Finland formally regained their rights sovereign states and were accepted into the UN. At the same time, the parties to the agreements pledged to “take all necessary measures to ensure that all persons under their jurisdiction, regardless of race, gender, language and religion, enjoy human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of speech, press and publication, religious cult, political opinion and social gatherings."
As a result of the war, fascism was completely defeated. Humanity cursed his theory and practice. This led to serious changes in the socio-political situation of the planet until the end of the twentieth century. Fluctuations characteristic of the 1930s Western civilization between right-wing (even racist) and left-wing (even communist) values led to the defeat of those forces that relied on a union of liberalism and right-wing radicalism (including fascism). Fascism has become obscene in post-war world, which was now based on a combination of the values of democracy and social equality, to which both the West and the USSR were formally committed. This opened the way to the elimination of totalitarianism in the USSR, the collapse of the colonial system, the renunciation of racism in the USA, and the strengthening of institutions social state and democracy. This was the vector of long-term development of the planet, determined by the results of the war.
United Nations
To make a repetition of the world war and even the creation of new centers of aggression impossible, the United Nations Organization (UN) was created at a conference in San Francisco on June 26, 1945. Like the League of Nations, the UN was supposed to prevent military conflicts through peaceful agreement international problems. However, the experience of the League of Nations convinced the UN organizers that force could be used to protect peace. The UN Security Council, of which the victorious countries of the USSR, USA, Great Britain, France and China became permanent members, received the right to impose sanctions on the aggressor and even use international military forces against him.
Europe's influence in the world has weakened; the USA and the USSR have emerged as world hegemons and "superpowers". The influence of the communists grew, they actively participated in the fight against fascism and received support from the USSR, also popular due to its decisive contribution to the victory. Number of states supporting diplomatic relations with the USSR, grew in 1941-1945 from 26 to 52. The victory over fascism led to a new rise in the democratic and national liberation movement. Directly during the war and following its results, Ethiopia regained its independence, Iceland, Syria, and Lebanon gained independence.
Collapse of the colonial system
After the Second World War, when victory was won over regimes professing racism, the ideology of domination of some peoples over others, the preservation of the colonial system became an anachronism. Western countries were interested in changing the forms of their domination in Asia and Africa from direct control and suppression to the economic dependence of the “Third World” on developed capitalist countries. At the same time, the peoples of the colonial countries intensified their struggle for liberation. Democratic and socialist ideas that dominated Europe and America penetrated Asia and Africa. Their population no longer wanted to be second-class citizens. Thus, the cultural influence of the mother countries on their colonies contributed to the rise of the liberation struggle.
The greatest achievements of the anti-colonial struggle were the independence of India, Pakistan and Burma with the consent of the mother country (Great Britain) and Vietnam and Indonesia without such consent, which led to wars for the independence of these countries against the Netherlands and France. Gaining independence was fraught with the aggravation of interethnic and interreligious conflicts (Indo-Pakistan conflict, etc.). The situation in the Middle East was complicated by the mass immigration of the Jewish population to Palestine, organized by Zionist organizations - especially actively as a result of the Holocaust. In 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed. The Arab states did not recognize Israel and tried to destroy it. During the first Arab-Israeli war of 1948-1949 Arab states were defeated, and Israel even expanded its borders somewhat.
Bipolar world
The unity of the victorious countries could not last long. The USSR on the one hand and the USA, Great Britain and France on the other represented different social systems. The USSR sought to expand its territory, governed from a single center along the lines of the Soviet economic and political command-administrative system. In its sphere of influence, the USSR sought a transition to state ownership of the main means of production and to the political dominance of the communists. The USSR sought to gain access to resources that were previously controlled capitalist countries. Pro-communist and pro-Soviet partisan movements unfolded in Greece, Iran, China, Vietnam and other countries.
The United States, in turn, sought to restructure the world in a way that would create favorable conditions for the activities of monopolistic corporations. The United States and its allies, which in the 40s also switched to a state-monopoly economy, sought to maintain their dominance in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The United States was greatly concerned about the growing influence of the USSR in Europe. War-ravaged Europeans were very interested in the experience of rapid industrial construction in the USSR. Information about the Soviet Union was often idealized, and millions of people hoped that replacing the capitalist system, which had fallen on hard times, with a socialist one could quickly overcome the devastation.
Under pressure from the USSR, by the end of the war in Eastern Europe, the positions of the communists and their allies sharply strengthened, and regimes of “people’s democracy” emerged. In Western European countries and the United States, persecution of communists began. In 1949, the NATO bloc was formed. Relations between NATO and the USSR with its dependent states of Eastern Europe were teetering on the brink of war. During World War II, the United States gained an atomic monopoly by testing the atomic bomb in combat conditions. In 1949, the USSR tested an atomic bomb, and both sides already possessed atomic weapons.
Cold War
The confrontation between the USSR and the USA intensified in 1946-1949 and was called “ cold war”, never resulted in world war, although it constantly led to wars in individual countries and regions (local wars). The Cold War caused a split in the world into two camps, gravitating towards the USSR and the USA.
Immediately after the start of the Cold War, the countries of the Far East turned into an arena of fierce struggle between supporters of communist ideas and the pro-Western path of development. Resumed civil war in China, which has been going on there since the 10s of the 20th century. Thanks to the help of the USSR, the People's Liberation Army of China, strengthened during the world war, won the Chinese Civil War of 1946-1949, and the Communists came to power. Korea was divided into north and south, occupied by Soviet and American troops respectively. After their withdrawal, the struggle between the pro-communist Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the pro-American Republic of Korea intensified, leading to the Korean War of 1950-1953.
Post-war Germany
The new division of Europe had a tragic impact on the fate of Germany - the line of division ran through the territory of the country. The east of Germany was occupied by the USSR, the west by the USA, Great Britain and France. In their hands was also western part Berlin. The actions of the states that occupied Germany predetermined the split of Germany into three public education. In May 1949, the lands located in the western zone of occupation united to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). Germany said it will seek reunification German people. West Berlin became an autonomous self-governing city associated with the Federal Republic of Germany. In October 1949, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was created in the Soviet zone of occupation. Formally, the state of war between the USSR and Germany was ended only in 1955. At the same time, foreign troops were withdrawn from Austria.
Post-war Japan
As a result of the victory over Japan, the USSR returned the Kuril Islands and its losses. Damaged as a result of the Peace of Portsmoor 1905 after Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905: Southern Sakhalin and even Port Arthur and Dalniy, rented from China.
At the end of World War II, Japan was a defeated, destroyed, humiliated country. But the defeat itself helped Japan quickly overcome post-war crisis. The Japanese military bureaucracy, which had been obstructing democratic change, was defeated, and the American occupation authorities It was feared that the impoverished Japanese population might support the communists. Therefore, the Americans promoted Japanese reforms. Already in 1946, a new Japanese constitution was adopted, according to which imperial power became purely formal, and real control the country passed to the government responsible to parliament. Basic civil liberties were introduced. The Constitution, adopted under the supervision of the Allies, prohibited Japan from having an army and navy or waging war outside its territory. But after World War II, Japan was an unequal state. It was occupied by the Americans. Japan had no internationally recognized borders. In 1951, a peace conference was held in San Francisco, which was supposed to consolidate the results of the war in the Pacific and end with Japan signing peace with all the countries that fought against it in World War II. But by this time the Cold War was in full swing. The organizers of the US conference refused to allow representatives of communist China and other communist regimes Far East. As a sign of protest, the USSR, Mongolia and India refused to participate in the conference. As a result, Japan signed the 1951 San Francisco Treaty only with Western countries and their Cold War allies. Under this agreement, Japan renounced any possessions outside the Japanese islands, the country's sovereignty was restored, but constitutional restrictions on development military power were preserved. Japan had to be defended American troops who remained in the country under the Security Treaty. Japan's relations with the USSR and many other Asian countries remained unsettled. Signing peace treaties dragged on for decades. Unsettled problems between Japan and its neighbors after World War II still remain.
It was also not possible to agree on the signing of a Soviet-Japanese peace agreement. Japan recognized that it must return South Sakhalin and most of the Kuril Islands to Russia. But, according to the Japanese side, the South Kuril Islands (“ northern territories”) Iturup, Habomai, Kunashir and Iturup are Japanese land masses that Russia and the USSR never owned. In 1956, diplomatic relations were restored between the USSR and Japan, negotiations were held to resolve the island problem and conclude a full-scale peace treaty. However, it has not yet been possible to reach an agreement. This problem was inherited by Russia from the USSR.
As the largest military upheaval in world history, World War II had a profound and lasting impact on world development, and some of its consequences continue to be felt to this day. World War II plays a big role in historical memory, and in the 21st century its stories are used in worldview and ideological struggle.
Crimean (Yalta) conference
Successful offensive of troops anti-Hitler coalition at the beginning of 1945 indicated that the war would soon end. 411 February 1945 A conference of heads of government of three allied states was held in Yalta: USSR (Stalin), USA (Roosevelt), Great Britain (Churchill). At the conference, the Allied military plans for the final defeat of Germany were determined and agreed upon and the basic principles of the post-war organization of the world were outlined. It was decided that within long period Germany will be occupied by troops of the USSR, USA, Great Britain, and France, and the troops of each country must occupy certain part, or zone, of Germany. Despite disagreements on the issue of the future structure of Germany, the heads of government came to a consensus - to destroy German militarism and Nazism and create guarantees that “Germany will never again violate world peace,” “disarm and disband all German armed forces and forever destroy the German general staff ».
The heads of government of the participating states of the conference decided to convene a United Nations conference on April 25, 1945 in San Francisco. It was agreed that the UN’s activities in addressing cardinal issues ensuring peace will be based on the principle of unanimity of the great powers - permanent members of the UN Security Council.
The conference decided on the post-war borders of Poland and the creation of a government made up of broad sections, including democratic figures from Poland itself and Poles from abroad.
At the conference, the Soviet government committed itself to entering the war against Japan 2-3 months after the end of the war with Germany. The agreement between the conference participants, in particular, provided that after the end of the war the USSR would be returned southern part Sakhalin and all the islands adjacent to it, as well as the Kuril Islands.
The conference participants adopted the “Declaration on liberated Europe", in which the allied states declared their readiness to help to the European peoples"to create democratic institutions of their own choice." However, the presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe actually allowed Stalin to establish Soviet control over them.
Military defeat and surrender of Germany
In December 1944, there was a lull on the Soviet-German front, and Soviet command began a regrouping of forces. Hitler decided to use this respite to eastern front for carrying out offensive operation on western front. Its goal was the defeat of the Allied forces, which would, in Hitler's opinion, create the preconditions for separate negotiations with the United States and England. The offensive of the German troops in the Ardennes, which began at the end of 1944, was successful: for the first time, Anglo-American troops fought not with reserve divisions, but with selected Wehrmacht units. The Germans managed to completely defeat two American divisions and suffered nine more losses.
The Allied position was difficult. Churchill turned to Stalin for help. On January 12, Soviet troops on three fronts: the First Ukrainian (I.S. Konev), the First Belorussian (G.K. Zhukov), and the Second Belorussian (K. Rokossovsky) - began the Vistula-Oder operation 8 days ahead of schedule. Simultaneously with this operation, Soviet troops carried out a powerful offensive on wide front from the Baltic to the Carpathians. The troops of G.K. Zhukov liberated the capital of Poland, Warsaw, and reached the Oder, capturing an important bridgehead on its western bank. In February, the Budapest group of Germans was defeated. In the area of Lake Balaton (Hungary), the enemy launched a final attempt to go on the offensive, but was defeated. In April, Soviet troops liberated the capital of Austria, Vienna, and in East Prussia captured the city of Königsberg. There were 60 km left to Berlin.
The German command had to urgently transfer to Soviet-German front significant forces, stopping the attack on British and American units. The Allied troops went on the offensive, crossed the Rhine and rushed to the Elbe River. Meanwhile, Soviet troops made their way here from the east, overcoming the fierce resistance of the Nazis. The historic meeting of the allies took place on April 25 on the banks of the Elbe, near the city of Torgau.
In April 1945, Anglo-American troops resumed their offensive in Northern Italy. Their actions were supported by fighters of the Italian Resistance, who managed to liberate a number of industrial centers countries. They captured and executed Mussolini. The actions of the rebels facilitated the advance of the Allied armies. German troops in Italy were forced to capitulate.
On April 16, the Berlin operation began. The Germans built powerful defensive lines. Goebbels announced total war. The children took up arms. By April 30, Soviet troops, overcoming stubborn resistance, broke through to the center of Berlin - the Reich Chancellery and the Reichstag. A red flag was raised over the Reichstag. Hitler committed suicide. General V. Chuikov accepted the surrender of the German garrison. After the capture of Berlin, the troops of the First Ukrainian Front made a rapid march to the aid of Prague, rebelled, and on the morning of May 9 entered the streets of the Czechoslovak capital. On the night of May 8-9, 1945, in Karlshorst (near Berlin), representatives of defeated Germany, on the one hand, and the military leaders of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France, on the other, signed the Act of Unconditional Surrender of German Troops. Military operations in Europe ended in victory for the forces of the anti-Hitler coalition.
Berlin (Potsdam) Conference
The Berlin (Potsdam) Conference was held from July 17 to August 2, 1945. Delegations of the leading countries of the anti-Hitler coalition were represented at it: the USSR led by I. Stalin, the USA - with President G. Truman, Great Britain - with W. Churchill, who was 28 July new Prime Minister K. Attlee took office. The decisions of the Yalta Conference were confirmed at the conference. Issue resolved on the demilitarization and democratization of Germany; an International Military Tribunal was created to try major war criminals; the exact borders of Poland were established; established amounts and sources of reparations. According to the agreements, Eastern Europe and Finland fell into the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union.
Defeat of Japan
The end of hostilities in Europe did not mean the end of World War II. In the Far East the war was still ongoing. American and English troops During the military operations of 1944 - early 1945, they inflicted a number of defeats on the Japanese and cleared a significant part of the occupied territories. However, the American command planned to carry out an invasion of the Japanese Islands no earlier than 1946. The fight against Japan would require enormous material costs and human losses (up to 1 million) from the United States. The USSR, according to the agreements at Yalta, denounced the neutrality pact with Japan and declared war on it on August 8.
On August 6 and 9, 1945, the Americans bombed Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Total number According to some sources, the death toll reached 300 thousand people. Application atomic weapons became more an act of intimidation than a military necessity.
By August 1945, the Soviet Union had concentrated significant forces on the Far Eastern border of the USSR and in Mongolia, the majority of which were troops who had fought in the war in Europe. Having a 2.53-fold superiority over the enemy, the Red Army already in the first days of the operation defeated Japanese troops and penetrated deep into the territory of Manchuria. On August 14, the Japanese government decided to surrender, but some Kwantung Army continued to resist. Soviet troops launched new attacks and occupied Mukden and Harbin. On August 19, the mass surrender of the Japanese began. In the twentieth of August, Port Arthur, Dalny, and Pyongyang were occupied. Soviet troops landed on South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. On September 2, on board the American battleship Missouri, the Japanese delegation signed the Act of Unconditional Surrender. The Second World War is over.
Results, consequences and lessons of World War II
The Second World War was the most difficult and bloody war in the history of mankind. 61 states with a population of 1.7 billion people took part in it. At least 60 million people died during the war, including 27 million citizens of the Soviet Union. Tens of millions were injured and became disabled. The war devastated entire countries, destroyed cities and villages. More than 11 million people were forced to leave their place of residence.
The war was fought cruelly and mercilessly. Hitler's Germany set the goal to enslave the population of the occupied territories, to undermine vitality Slavs, completely exterminate the Jews and Gypsies. IN concentration camps The Nazis killed 12 million people, including 6 million Jews.
The states of the anti-Hitler coalition - the USA, England, the USSR - responded with massive bombings of enemy cities, deportation of the population suspected of collaborating with the occupiers - sometimes entire peoples, as was the case in the USSR with the Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingush, Kalmyks. At the final stage of the war, the United States used a weapon of mass destruction - the atomic bomb.
The main result of World War II was the victory over fascism. The fascist and militaristic aggressor states - Germany, Italy, Japan and their allies were completely defeated.
The immediate result of the war was a bipolar division of the world. The USA turned into a gigantic “superpower”, the leader of the capitalist world, laying claim to world hegemony. The second “superpower” was the Soviet Union. By the end of the war, the USSR had the world's largest land army and enormous industrial potential. Its armed forces were located in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in North Korea. The Soviet Union led all social forces opposing capitalism. Two main poles of attraction for world forces emerged, two ideological and military-political blocs, the confrontation of which led to the beginning of the Cold War.
The defeat of fascism and militarism caused significant territorial changes in Europe and Asia, which were approved at the Potsdam Conference of the Heads of the USSR, USA and Great Britain (July-August 1945) and the Paris Peace Conference of Foreign Ministers (summer and autumn 1946). At these forums, the territorial acquisitions of the Soviet Union, made by it in 1939-1940, were recognized. In the Far East, the USSR returned the territory of Southern Sakhalin lost as a result of the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905, and also received the Kuril Islands.
Another important result of World War II was the beginning of the collapse of the colonial system. Occupied by Japan, Asian countries escaped the control of the metropolitan countries. In other colonial countries, the war awakened masses of the population to political activity, who increasingly demanded independence. The power of the colonialists was shaken. The irreversible collapse of the colonial system began.
The main lesson of World War II is to prevent another war. Experience also teaches: in order to defend peace, all peace-loving countries should unite. To survive, humanity must unite and disarm.
(ed.: based on the “Chronicle of Humanity.” M., 1994; book “The Second World War. Discussions. Main Trends. Translated from German. M., 1997, textbook 1989 and course of lectures by E.F. Yazkov)
The Second World War had a decisive impact on the history of all the great powers that participated in it, on their further rise or their fall. The system of states itself has undergone significant changes. It concentrated around a few superpowers and a number of “middle” states, but continued to exist, and, moreover, it strengthened under the sign of the formation of ideological and state-political “blocs”.
1. Basics - victory over fascism. Fascist. parties are banned, leaders are put on trial (Nuremberg trials), the ideology of fascism has discredited itself.
2. Countries and peoples that were threatened by the loss of independence and fascisation, retained their statehood, defended democratic freedoms.
3. Grew up international authority of the USSR. Stalin's cunning determination ultimately ensured the Soviet Union the greatest successes among all the victorious powers, although its territory suffered incomparably more from the war. 26 million dead (USA - 259 thousand, UK - 386 thousand), devastated areas in the west - extraordinary. high price around the corner, to international recognition. In the future, the possibility of recreating anti-Soviet combinations in Eastern, Central and South-Eastern Europe in the style of the 20s and 30s was excluded.
4. Before the war, there was 1 state, built by socialism, after it (it doesn’t matter: on “Soviet bayonets” or independently) it began to form world system of socialism. Later, in the late 50s, this allowed Soviet ideologists to say that “the victory of socialism is complete and final, since the restoration of capitalism is impossible.” In the 30s the victory of socialism was spoken of only “in the main.” After World War II, 11 states (1945-1949) took the path indicated by the USSR, forming a kind of belt between the USSR and Europe.
5. Surrender of the Axis countries ( Germany, Italy, Japan) completely changed the situation in the world, since they temporarily dropped out of the category of “great powers”. Over time, Italy got out of the situation worst of all, Germany (split into 2 states!) a little faster, and Japan - excellent - “economical. miracle" of the 60s.
6. All Old Europe increasingly at a faster pace began to lose its leading role in world politics. Especially “got it” France: in 1940, she capitulated to Germany and dropped out of the ranks of the “great powers”; her position was much worse than that of her rival England. France was recognized as a victorious country, but economically it was not one. This determined the duality of its position for many years: France itself was still aware of its greatness, but on a global scale it was no longer perceived as a “power”. But also England lagged behind the USA. For her, the very decision to enter the war in 1939 predetermined the further weakening of her position as a world power, which had been shaken during the First World War
7. The power political vacuum was filled after the war by the victorious powers - USSR and USA. These are the ones 2 powers(although their losses were human and material, and their contribution to the victory was unequal) began to determine the nature of political decisions on a global scale. Having acquired nuclear weapons - the USA in 1945, the USSR in 1949 - they received powerful leverage on world politics. The transformation of the USSR and the USA into “superpowers” is associated with the creation of the hydrogen bomb (1952 - USA, 1953 - USSR) In connection with the role of the USSR and the USA, world politics has transformed from multipolar to bipolar(“two blocs”, the policy of confrontation in the form of the “Cold War” since 1946, two ideological systems, the bearers of which believed their life values and the settings are the only correct ones). At the same time, the USA (+An) initially insisted on the idea of a “literal one world“[against the policy of violence, for the right of nations to self-determination, international disarmament, free trade, cooperation in all areas] - developed in 1941 within the framework of the “Atlantic Charter” (Roosevelt-Churchill signed). But Stalin believed that “whoever occupies a certain theory will give it a corresponding social system,” and therefore insisted - i.e. was going to strengthen the influence of socialism in Europe and create state system pro-Soviet orientation, which has been consistently implemented since 1943. The first step in this direction is the USSR’s non-recognition of the Polish emigrant government and the creation of a pro-Soviet state in Poland. Next is the consistent desire for the division of Germany. All this pushed Churchill to speak in March 1946 and declare the Cold War. The Cold War, as a result of World War II, had its advantage (from the point of view of modern German IS): instead of the “either-or” principle, it forced the world to gradually recognize the principle of “both-and...”
8. In a number of countries (primarily England), the center of attention was displaced by internal problems. [The outcome of the British elections in July 1945 - the resignation of Churchill (despite his triumph in the war) and the coming to power of Labor, who insisted on social reforms, showed that the majority of the British had come to terms with the retreat into the second tier of powers and wanted to have different priorities] [The example of Japan: it was among the defeated, but concentrated on solving internal economic problems made the famous leap = Japanese miracle = and became one of the powers that play a major role in the modern world economy. And this despite the fact that it developed independently, remained faithful to tradition, incl. monarchical, imperial]
9. The need for the USA and England to use the potential of the “Commonwealth of Nations and Colonies” for the purpose of waging war (so that the colonies do not go over to the side of the enemy; in 1942, England promised the independence of India so that it would not go over to the side of the Pact of 3 Powers or the “Axis” ) had the consequence that after the war, all nationalities revived. movement. France could have acquired more in Europe political significance, if it had recognized the freedom and independence of its colonies, as de Gaulle had proclaimed - albeit hesitantly - as his program during the war. But at the moment of victory in France in 1945, the forces defending the colonial status of France gained the upper hand. After the war, however, a number of colonial countries declared themselves independent- Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines, etc. The beginning of the collapse of the colonial system continued in the 60-70s.
“Since all the young states of Asia and Africa were blinded by their national sovereignty, decolonization as one of the most important results the Second World War paradoxically strengthened general trend returns to the outdated principle of sovereignty in all, even the smallest states" (opinion of the German historian Hilgruber from the book "World War II")
10. Growth of the labor and communist movement in all countries. In some countries, communists began to enter the government and others executive bodies authorities (Italy, France, Belgium, Finland). In others, the communists won the right to legal activity (countries of Asia and Latin America). The strength of the trade union movement has grown.
Already at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, a number of contradictions emerged between the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition. These contradictions were associated with the establishment of spheres of influence in the post-war world. Many questions remained open even after the end of the war.
In March 1946 in Fulton (USA). Churchill, who no longer held the post of Prime Minister, made his famous speech about the need to omit " iron curtain" between free world and zone Soviet influence to prevent its expansion. It was this speech by Churchill that is considered the beginning of the Cold War.
In the first post-war decade, there were several key problems that led to a clash of interests between ideological opponents. One of these problems was the German one. As you know, Germany was divided into 4 occupation zones (USSR, USA, Great Britain and France), which also existed on the territory of Berlin, the management of which was coordinated by an inter-allied control council. In 1946, two conferences were held in Paris, the decisions of which were supposed to contribute to the preservation of a united Germany and, in the future, the restoration of civil governance in it, but agreement was reached only on the issue of reparations. At the same time, activities carried out by the Soviet military administration (svag) ( agrarian reform, the creation of mixed and nationalization of industrial enterprises), contributed to the growth of discrepancies between economic and political structures in various occupation zones. The confrontation between the parties in the inter-allied council led in 1947 to the blockade of West Berlin. In response to this in western zones ah its own was released monetary unit, then in eastern zone appeared Soviet brand. This process ended with the proclamation in May 1949. On the territory of the three western occupation zones federal republic Germany, and in October of the same year in the Soviet zone - German democratic republic, to whose government the Soviet administration transferred all powers.
In connection with the possibility of the spread of Soviet influence on the Balkan Peninsula in 1947. American government developed a foreign policy program called the Truman Doctrine or the containment of communism. The territories of Greece and Turkey came under American control, which in 1952 led to their entry into the North Atlantic bloc (NATO). This military-political alliance was created at the initiative of the United States, its basis was the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington on April 4, 1949 by the United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark and Iceland . In accordance with the UN Charter, NATO was created as a regional and defensive bloc.
Design of two opposing blocks European countries contributed to the proposal in July 1947. At the Paris conference of the American economic assistance Europe for its restoration and development. This program was called the Marshall Plan after the US Secretary of State George. Marshall. 17 European countries agreed to accept American help. Countries such as Romania, Hungary, Albania, not without pressure from the USSR, abandoned it, which Poland and Czechoslovakia were also forced to do. In return Soviet Union had to provide assistance to these states, despite his own very difficult situation. This situation led to the creation in 1949 of the Council mutual economic assistance(SEV), an organization within which cooperation began to take place not only between European but also Asian states, called socialist.
It is interesting that Finland, in the new conditions, tried to emphasize its independent position, finding itself outside Soviet camp, but also refusing help according to the Marshall plan, and also not subsequently joining NATO.
During 1945-1948. In the Eastern European countries, which we called countries of people's democracy, the process of formation of communist regimes was taking place. It looked quite legitimate, the communists came to power through elections, but we must not forget about the presence of Soviet troops in Eastern Europe. To coordinate the actions of the communist parties, an information bureau (cominform) was created in September 1947, in which the communist parties of France and Italy also participated. It must be said that after the end of the war, in many countries the authority of the communists was extremely high due to the fact that they were organizers and active participants in the resistance movement. Therefore, in the first post-war years, the possibility of their coming to power in some Western European countries didn't look utopian.
In 1948, by decision of the UN, with active support from the USSR, in part of the territory of Palestine, which was under mandate until 1947 British territory, the Jewish state of Israel was created, which immediately created the ground for a conflict with the Arabs living in these territories, which has not been fully resolved to this day. The USSR counted on the fact that Israel would also be in its sphere of influence, but when the leadership of this state began to pursue an independent policy and accept help from the United States, Soviet-Israeli relations were severed. This fact largely influenced the development of the Anti-Semitic campaign in the USSR since 1949.
At the end of the 40s. The situation in Asia has changed radically. The long-term civil war in China, liberated from Japanese invaders, ended with the victory of the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, over supporters of the Kuomintang party. October 1, 1949 The People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Beijing, uniting the territory of mainland China. Thus, the problem of “two Chinas” arose. Mao Zedong announced that the People's Republic of China would join the anti-imperialist camp led by the USSR, counting on help from him. The Soviet leadership knew that Mao adhered to own views on the prospects of socialism in China, and the Chinese Communist Party was such in many ways only in name, but the temptation to expand socialist camp due to such colossal Asian country was great. In February 1950, a Soviet-Chinese treaty was signed in Moscow for 30 years, according to which the parties pledged to provide each other with any assistance, including military assistance, if one of the contracting parties was subjected to aggression.
One of key points initial stage The Cold War became the Korean War. After the victory over Japan, Soviet and American troops were stationed on the peninsula. The line dividing them ran along the 38th parallel, which marked the demarcation line between the two Korean states created in 1948. After the withdrawal of the occupation forces from the territory of the peninsula, the government of the Korean People's Democratic Republic (DPRK), located north of the 38th parallel and led by local communist leader Kim Il Sung, began preparations for an attack on south korea to cause an anti-imperialist uprising there. North Korea began implementing this idea on June 25, 1950.
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