Russian philosophy is a phenomenon of world philosophical thought. Its phenomenal nature lies in the fact that Russian philosophy developed exclusively autonomously, independently, independently of European and world philosophy, and was not influenced by numerous philosophical trends of the West - empiricism, rationalism, idealism, etc. At the same time, Russian philosophy is distinguished by its depth, comprehensiveness, a rather specific range of problems being studied, sometimes incomprehensible to the West.
Main directions Russian philosophy of the 19th century. were:
Decembrist philosophy;
Philosophy of Westerners and Slavophiles;
Philosophy of Chaadaev;
Political philosophy of conservatives (monarchists), liberals and revolutionary democrats;
Philosophical systems of writers F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy;
Characteristics Russian philosophy are:
Strong exposure religious influence, especially Orthodoxy and paganism;
A specific form of expression of philosophical thoughts - artistic creativity, literary criticism, journalism, art, “Aesopian language” (which is explained by political lack of freedom and strict censorship);
Integrity, the desire of almost all philosophers to deal not with individual problems, but with the whole complex current problems;
The large role of problems of morality and morality;
Widespread among the masses, understandable to ordinary people.
In 1836, the Telescope magazine published “ Philosophical writing» P.Ya. Chaadaeva. The letter's harsh criticism of Russia's slave past and present caused a shock effect in society. Peculiarities historical fate He saw Russia in its tragic separation between eastern and Western civilizations and the uncertainty of choice: “We are not quite the West and not quite the East... Russians are not the name of a people, but the name of a historical enterprise.” Russia's role in the world, in his opinion, is to set an example of how not to live. Chaadaev saw the future in choosing one thing - the European path. At this time, a specific topic of Russian philosophy was being formed - does Russia have special role and fate in history, what is its future (“Russian idea”).
Discussion of Russia's development prospects results in a philosophical discussion between Westerners(N.V. Stankevich, M.A. Bakunin, K.D. Kavelin, T.N. Granovsky, M.N. Katkov) and Slavophiles(A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, K.S. and I.S. Aksakov). The revolutions that swept through the middle. XIX century throughout Europe, and social problems in Russia itself they generate conservative, liberal and radical directions in socio-political thought. The development and interpretation of Hegel's philosophy in relation to Russian conditions engaged in the emerging Hegelian philosophical circles that developed social aspects German idealism (N.V. Stankevich, M.A. Bakunin, V.G. Belinsky).
The question of faith, its relationship with reason (knowledge) occupied great place V Russian religious philosophy, one of the most important concepts which is “whole knowledge”. The ideal of integral knowledge as an organic all-encompassing unity attracted many Russian thinkers, starting with A. S. Khomyakov and V. S. Solovyova(1853-1900). They believed that the whole truth is revealed only to the whole person. Only by collecting all your spiritual forces - sensory experience - into a single whole, rational thinking, aesthetic and moral experience, and also - which is very important - religious contemplation, a person begins to understand the true existence of the world and comprehends super-rational truths about God. Correlating faith with reason, with knowledge, Russian thinkers understood the latter as an integral unity, which is formed as a synthesis of empirical knowledge (experimental sciences), abstract thinking (philosophy) and faith (theology).
A major representative of the religious movement was a philosopher and priest P.A. Florensky(1882 - the date of death is controversial - 1937 or 1943, died in Solovki in custody). Florensky viewed the world as a single interconnected whole. Knowledge is revealed to the mind directly. Florensky put forward the idea that in the future, in connection with the latest technical discoveries a new understanding of the relationship between matter and spirit, relativity, and the impermanence of time and space will be found.
New version The “Russian idea” was Eurasianism, which saw a common future for the peoples inhabiting the space of Eurasia. This intellectual and socio-philosophical doctrine took shape in the 20-30s. XX century mainly among the Russian emigration. Its founders were N. S. Trubetskoy, L. P. Karsavin, V. I. Vernadsky. A significant role in the process of reviving the ideas of Eurasianism at the end of the 20th century. played by the work of L. N. Gumilyov.
The original character of Russian philosophy was manifested in the so-called "Russian cosmism". The most prominent representatives this direction were N.V. Bugaev, V.I. Vernadsky, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, A.L. Chizhevsky. V.I. Vernadsky (1863 - 1945) - a major Russian and Soviet scientist and cosmist philosopher. He substantiated the theory of the noosphere in detail. As man evolves, his transformative activity intensifies surrounding nature. The noosphere appears - the sphere of the mind, human life, his material and spiritual culture. The noosphere is constantly expanding and covering other areas of existence. The biosphere (sphere of life) constantly but steadily transforms into the noosphere. According to Vernadsky, in the future the noosphere will become the leading one on Earth and will move into space.
Distinctive Features classical Russian philosophy - its fundamental orientation to problems of ethical and anthropological orientation, the desire to substantiate synthetic forms of worldview, cosmological and sociocultural syncretism, a deep connection with Orthodoxy, the expression of philosophical ideas not only in the normative, but also in the literary genre.
LECTURE 6. Russian philosophy
6.1. Features of Russian philosophy
6.2. Philosophy of the Russian Enlightenment
6.3. Russian materialism: M.V. Lomonosov, A.N. Radishchev
6.4. Westerners and Slavophiles
6.5. Philosophical foundations revolutionary democratic movement
6.6. Philosophical ideas of the second half of the 19th century.
6.7. Russian cosmism
6.8. Russian religious philosophy late XIX– beginning of the 20th century
Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture as a whole; at the same time, it is distinguished by its national identity and, to some extent, uniqueness.
First characteristic feature Russian philosophical thought stems from the problem of spiritual heritage. Western European philosophy almost from the very beginning was based on the achievements of ancient thought and was its direct successor. In essence, Western European thought did not begin, but creatively continued and developed what was developed by ancient Greek and Roman thinkers. This was facilitated by common language educated layers - Latin.
The fate of philosophy in Rus' was different. Through Byzantium Ancient Rus' I only borrowed individual elements ancient culture in the form of translated sources. But things didn’t go further than that. Neither in the Kiev nor in the Moscow periods did any of the major ancient Greek philosophical works come to Rus' that could seriously influence the process of formation of the spiritual life of the young people. There is no need to look for this external reasons. This phenomenon, apparently, must also be explained by society’s unpreparedness for free perception, much less assimilation, of the philosophical ideas of antiquity. The belated historical start, the youth of East Slavic societies, and the relatively late passage of stages of socio-economic development hampered the development of culture. Russian thought, due to historical circumstances, did not have philosophical traditions; it created them itself. This, in our opinion, is an extremely important and interesting question for understanding the specifics of our spiritual culture.
Second feature Russian philosophy, largely due to the first, is that it almost always developed in the depths of religion. In principle, such a connection is inherent in philosophy essentially. “Philosophy,” Hegel wrote, “studies the same subjects as religion... Both are concerned with the realm of the finite, nature and the human spirit, and their relation to each other and to God as their truth.” Religious and philosophical forms public consciousness arose approximately simultaneously. Elements of a religious and philosophical nature are present in the minds of not only the distant predecessors of modern philosophers, but also of many current ones. However, in Russian philosophy this connection with religious views is special. In it we see a close and deep internal synthesis of religion and philosophy, and in a sense, the absence of non-religious philosophy in general. “Russian thought,” rightly wrote V.V. Zenkovsky, - always (and forever) remained connected with her religious element, with her religious soil; here was and remains the main root of originality, but also of various complications in the development of Russian philosophical thought.”
Third feature: Russian philosophy is characterized by anthropocentrism and social orientation. Her deep and significant religious interest is constantly accompanied by the theme of man, his destinies and paths, the purpose and meaning of his life.
For Russian philosophy, man and his spiritual and moral life are not just a special sphere outside world, his expression. On the contrary, man is a microcosm, which carries within itself the solution to the mystery of existence, the macrocosm. Man, says N.A. Berdyaev, not a fractional, infinitesimal part of the Universe, but a small but whole Universe. The essence of man is in his integrity. A whole person combines such qualities as sensory experience, rational thinking, aesthetic perception of the world, moral experience, and religious contemplation. Only such a person has access to integral knowledge, i.e. comprehension of superrational existence.
In Russian philosophy, a person is not isolated from other people. All individuals are integrated, they are not isolated from each other. The substantial basis is not I, but We. We are an indivisible unity. It is no coincidence that Russian thinkers rejected Leibniz’s idea of the closedness and isolation of monads. For them, monads not only interact with each other, are not only connected with God and the world, but also have their own existence in such a mutual connection. The essence and specificity of the Russian spirit is in its conciliarity.
Through man and in the name of man, for his spiritual improvement and arrangement of his earthly existence Russian philosophers constantly turn to social issues. “Russian philosophy is inextricably linked with real life, therefore it often appears in the form of journalism.” Almost all Russian thinkers, even those who are prone to mystical generalizations, feel an inner desire for the inseparability of theory and practice, abstract thought and concrete life. All this is holistic and sustainable in their work.
Fourth feature: in history and modern reality, Russian thought is worried about the problem of “truth”, because in this word, as N.K. wrote. Mikhailovsky, truth and justice merge into one single thing. The truth is not in individuals empirical aspects life, not in solving any particular socio-political matter, but in the synthetic integrity of all aspects of reality and all movements of the human spirit.
Truth is not the same as truth. It means not so much the coincidence of representation and reality, an adequate image of reality, but moral basis life, the spiritual essence of existence. Truth is a search for holiness, spiritual purity, justice. For Russian thinkers, the main thing is not just knowledge and understanding, but experience. The well-known Spinoza credo “not to cry, not to laugh, but to understand” did not satisfy them due to its emphasized rationalism. The truth for them is not only the sphere of the mind, but also the heart.
Russian thinkers, starting from Hilarion to Solovyov and Florensky, are seekers of truth. They want not only to know the truth in a rational sense, but to comprehend the main religious and moral principle of the universe, eliminate lies and untruths, transform life, purify themselves and be saved. Therefore, Russian philosophy is not satisfied only with the truth that is proposed by theoretical scientific knowledge, since the latter does not reveal the foundations of life and, therefore, does not achieve real truth. Truth is focused on the vital-intuitive comprehension of existence in sympathy and experience. For Russian philosophers, “truth” is key concept, mystery and meaning of existence.
Fifth feature Russian philosophy, which is emphasized by researchers of its history, is the lack of original philosophical systems. It should be noted that Western philosophical creativity almost always strives to build a system. It does not always reach it, but it always moves towards it. This is in the spirit of philosophy.
In Russian philosophy, on the contrary, we will not find such constructions as, for example, in German philosophy. In this sense, we do not have our own, Russian, Hegel. This is a shortcoming of Russian philosophy, but the absence of a system does not mean the absence of philosophy. Russian spiritual culture is unusually rich in original, bright and lively thought. Russian philosophy consists of two parts: the first is actually philosophical works and the second - fiction. Among the Russians, as A.F. noted. Losev, there are very few “pure” philosophers. They exist, they are brilliant, but often you have to look for them among writers. Deep and original philosophical ideas disappeared into literature. Fiction and poetry became a true treasure trove of Russian philosophical thought. The most important philosophical problems were comprehended in them. Perhaps the reason here is dissatisfaction with the one-sided rationalism of science.
Russian thinking does not shy away from systematic and conceptual knowledge in general, but considers it insufficient to obtain a complete and living picture of reality. It is characterized by intuitionism, which is best achieved through figurative and artistic perception.
Speaking about the nature of Russian philosophical thought, one cannot help but note such a feature of it (at least at certain stages) as the influence of Western European philosophy on its development. In the 18th century Russia began to develop with ardent enthusiasm Western culture, which was stimulated mainly by the reforms of Peter the Great. Although the “assimilation” of someone else’s heritage was largely superficial, it cannot be denied positive value this phenomenon. When in Russia the formation of a true national philosophy, free from religious pressure, nearby, in the West actively and diversifiedly developed philosophical life. Russian thinkers had the opportunity to accept this rich theoretical heritage, as if shortening the long and not an easy path own ascent to the heights of philosophical thought. At the same time, such apprenticeship and imitation of others constrained the freedom of one’s own creativity. From the very beginning, Russian thought was characterized by a desire for an internal, intuitive comprehension of existence, its hidden depths, which is most of all comprehended not by reducing it to logical concepts and definitions, but through the power of imagination and inner vital mobility. Russian philosophical thought is extremely characterized by a combination of the sensual, rational and irrational, intuitive and mystical. As for Western European philosophy, its main principle is rationality (ratio). Rationalism, naturally, is guided only by the categories of reason, and it rejects everything that cannot be grasped by the power of reason. Thus, he leaves no room for other forms of philosophizing. It is for this reason domestic philosophy could not remain an eternal student of the West and was soon freed from captivity. In the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. she came out to own way development.
Pedagogical means did not immediately become a mandatory component pedagogical process. Long time traditional methods training was based on the word, but with the growth of information, with the development information technology there was a need to use technical means training. Thus, pedagogical means are material objects, which are necessary for the organization and implementation of the pedagogical process.
Pedagogical tools include such tools as educational and visual aids, educational and production equipment, didactic equipment, computer classes, organizational and pedagogical tools, educational and laboratory equipment, etc.
In connection with the development of didactic technology and computers, a new direction in pedagogy arose - educational technology. The essence of this direction lies in the application of a technological approach to the construction and implementation of the pedagogical process.
Pedagogical technology unites didactic technology, traditional teaching methods and participants in the pedagogical process into one whole, unified.
Pedagogical form– is a stable, complete organization of the pedagogical process in the unity of all its components.
Forms in pedagogy are divided according to the degree of complexity. There are three varieties: – simple: built on minimum quantity methods and means, most often devoted to one topic or content. Such forms of the pedagogical process include: conversation, excursion, quiz, test, exam, lecture, “combat of scholars,” chess tournament, concert, consultation, etc.;
– compound: built on development simple shapes pedagogical process, on their various combinations. These include: lesson, competition professional excellence, festive evening, conference, KVN, etc. For example, a lesson can combine a conversation, quiz, instruction, survey, report, etc.;
– complex: built on development compound forms. Depending on which direction of the content of education the form belongs to, they distinguish following forms:
– physical education;
– aesthetic education;
– moral education.
Forms of training organization: lesson, lecture, seminar, test, consultation, practice, etc. You can also distinguish individual forms (consultation, test, exam), forms of interaction (subbotnik, group competitions, shows, debates), cooperative forms (in the case when the goal is achieved by distributing functions among students), etc.
There are forms of individual, group and collective activity of students.
Let's consider the place of forms in the pedagogical process. The figure below shows in the form of a diagram the placement of forms in the pedagogical process.
Thus, the means and forms of the pedagogical process are aimed at achieving the goal and solving pedagogical tasks using the creative experience of the teacher aimed at obtaining best result learning process.
The term " method"comes from Greek word methodos, which means "study", "way", "way".
In the pedagogical literature there are different approaches to defining the concept “ teaching method":
way of organizing students' cognitive activity (T.A. Ilyina);
orderly way, related activities teacher and students, aimed at solving teaching problems (Yu.K. Babansky);
a way to achieve the learning goal, which is a system of sequential ordered teacher's actions, which organizes, with the help of certain means, the practical and cognitive activities of students to master social experience(I.Ya. Lerner).
Thus, under the teaching method one should understand the ways of professional interaction between a teacher and students in order to solve educational problems.
As a multidimensional concept, teaching methods can be grouped into systems. In this regard, there are many classifications.
Classification of teaching methods.
By sources of knowledge:
– practical (experiments, exercises, educational and productive work);
visual (illustration, demonstration, student observations, display);
verbal (explanation, clarification, story, conversation, lecture, debate, discussion);
video methods (viewing, training, exercise under computer control).
By the nature of cognitive activity(I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin):
explanatory and illustrative methods (story, conversation, explanation, report, demonstration, instruction) - a combination of verbal and visual methods;
reproductive methods (lecture, example, demonstration, algorithmic prescription, exercise) – transfer of knowledge to finished form using verbal and visual methods;
problematic methods (conversation, problematic situation, game, generalization), a prerequisite for which is the presence of a problem situation;
partially search methods (discussion, observation, independent work, laboratory work) – independent acquisition of knowledge;
research methods (research modeling, collection of new facts, assignment, design).
For didactic purposes(Yu.K. Babansky and V.I. Andreev).
Methods of organizing educational and cognitive activities - verbal, visual, practical (sources):
inductive and deductive (logic);
reproductive and problem-search (thinking);
independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher (management).
2. Methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity:
stimulating and motivating interest in learning;
stimulation and motivation of duty, responsibility.
3. Methods of monitoring and self-control of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities:
writing;
laboratory.
By stages of training:
preparation for learning new material;
learning new material;
specification, deepening, acquisition of skills and abilities;
control and evaluation.
There are also monological (information-communicating) teaching methods, for example: story, lecture, explanation, and dialogic methods of presenting educational material (conversation, problem presentation, debate).
The issues of choosing teaching methods represent the most important aspect of a teacher’s activity. Depending on their decision, the educational process itself, the activities of the teacher and students, and, consequently, the result of learning as a whole depend.
Yu.K. Babansky recommends comparative analysis for the successful selection of teaching methods various methods, guided by such criteria as:
compliance with training and development goals;
real learning opportunities for students;
available training conditions;
opportunities for teachers.
Pedagogical means– these are material or ideal objects intended for the organization and implementation of the pedagogical process.
Materials for training– educational visual aids, didactic equipment, educational equipment, technical teaching aids, etc.
Ideal learning tools– speech, writing, diagrams, drawings, works of art, etc.
When using any learning tools, it is unacceptable to either abuse them or ignore their capabilities.
The development of didactic technology and computers created the preconditions for the emergence of a new direction in pedagogy - pedagogicaltechnologies, which considers didactic technology, teaching methods and participants in the pedagogical process as a holistic unity.
Form of training organization– the external side of the learning process, a stable, complete organization of the pedagogical process in the unity of all its components: content, goals, principles, methods, forms, means.
In didactics, the forms of organizing the learning process are revealed through the ways in which the teacher interacts with students when solving educational problems through managing activities, learning, and relationships.
There are three main systems organization of the pedagogical process:
individual training and education;
class-lesson system;
lecture-seminar system.
Curriculum-planned forms of training (lesson, lecture, seminar, Homework, exam) have educational and educational significance, contribute to the formation of a worldview, and ensure the mastery of specific academic disciplines. A system of unscheduled forms of education (consultations, conferences, excursions, clubs, classes in advanced and auxiliary programs) helps improve students' knowledge.
The functions of training forms include:
training and educational, allowing to create best conditions for the transfer of knowledge, abilities, skills, the formation of a worldview and the development of practical abilities of students;
educational, promoting the active manifestation of all the spiritual powers of students;
organizational, requiring clear organizational and methodological work of the teacher.
In relation to each other, forms of education are capable of performing complementary and coordinating functions.
In the history of pedagogy, various didactic systems, in which certain forms of training had an advantage:
student interaction (Bell-Lancaster system, 18th century in England);
individual and group classes (Batavian education system, 19th century);
differentiation of training (Mannheim system);
workshop system (Dalton Plan);
brigade-laboratory training (20s of the twentieth century in Russia);
combination of activities in large groups with individual student work (Trump's American plan);
project system (project method; based on practical activities students).
The leading forms of organizing the learning process are the lesson and lecture (at school and university, respectively). The scientific basis for the lesson was given by Ya.A. about 400 years ago. Comenius.
Lesson Features:
permanent, staffed group of students;
managing the activities of students, taking into account the characteristics of each;
mastering knowledge directly in the classroom;
variability of students' activities.
It is in the lesson that the advantages of the classroom-lesson system are reflected:
strict organization of training;
economy (one teacher);
a prerequisite for collective activity, mutual learning, competition and student development.
The same form of educational organization can change the structure and modification of a lesson depending on the objectives and methods of educational work (for example, there is a game lesson, a conference lesson, a dialogue, a workshop).
Main Lesson– combined – includes the main types of student activities. At school, along with lessons, there are other organizational forms training (electives, clubs, laboratory workshops, independent work).
At the university, the main forms of education are lectures and seminars.
Lecture– monologue presentation of the material by the teacher. A university lecture is the main link in the didactic learning cycle. Its goal is to form a oriented basis for students’ subsequent mastery of educational material.
Seminar– a form of collective independent work of students. Seminars help consolidate knowledge, develop skills in communication and analysis, and develop student activity.
At the university, in addition to lectures and seminars, other organizational forms of training are used: laboratory work, research work, independent educational work of students, practical training, internship.
Exams and tests, tests or independent work are used as forms of control and assessment of learning outcomes. rating system assessments, tests, testing, interviews, abstracts, coursework, dissertations.
Control, or verification of learning outcomes, is a mandatory component of the learning process and is interpreted as pedagogical diagnostics. Its functions, in addition to monitoring the results of knowledge, include teaching, developmental, educational, organizational, preventive and corrective functions.
Grade– this is a determination of the degree to which students have acquired knowledge, skills, and abilities in accordance with the requirements of training programs.
Assessment requirements:
must be objective and fair, clear and understandable for the learner;
play a stimulating role;
be reasonable and have an individual character.
When assessing knowledge you need to consider:
amount of knowledge on academic subject(question);
understanding of the material studied, independent judgment, conviction in what is being presented;
the effectiveness of knowledge, the ability to apply it in solving practical problems.
When assessing skills and abilities, the following are taken into account:
the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in practice;
the presence of errors, their number, nature and their impact on work.
The assessment should be a detailed judgment:
– about the positive and negative sides of the answer;
– presence or absence of promotion;
– mark as output.
Without control and evaluation, the teacher, like the student himself, does not receive feedback and has no idea about the level of progress of the student.
“The absence of evaluation is the worst type of evaluation” (B.G. Ananyev).
Questions for self-control
What classifications of teaching methods exist?
What conditions determine the choice of teaching methods?
Expand the starting points of the classification of teaching methods.
Give a classification of forms of training.
Describe the types of control.
Check out different approaches to the classification of patterns and principles in pedagogy (Yu.I. Babansky, M.N. Skatkin, B.T. Likhachev, etc.)
A method in education is “the orderly activity of the teacher and students aimed at achieving a given goal.”
Verbal methods. The use of verbal methods in a holistic pedagogical process is carried out primarily with the help of oral and printed word. This is explained by the fact that the word is not only a source of knowledge, but also a means of organizing and managing educational and cognitive activities. This group of methods includes the following methods pedagogical interaction: story, explanation, conversation, lecture, educational discussions, disputes, work with a book, example method.
A story is “a consistent presentation of predominantly factual material, carried out in a descriptive or narrative form.”
Great value has a story when organizing the value-oriented activities of students. By influencing the feelings of children, the story helps them understand and assimilate the meaning of the moral assessments and norms of behavior contained in it.
Conversation as a method is “a carefully thought-out system of questions that gradually leads students to gain new knowledge.”
With all the diversity of their thematic content, conversations have as their main purpose the involvement of students themselves in the assessment of certain events, actions, and phenomena of social life.
Verbal methods also include educational discussions. Situations of cognitive dispute, when skillfully organized, attract the attention of schoolchildren to the inconsistency of the world around them, to the problem of the knowability of the world and the truth of the results of this knowledge. Therefore, to organize a discussion, it is necessary first of all to put forward a real contradiction to the students. This will allow students to activate their creative activity and put them in front of moral problem choice.
Towards verbal methods pedagogical impact The method of working with the book also applies.
The ultimate goal of the method is to introduce the student to independent work with educational, scientific and fiction literature.
Practical methods in the holistic pedagogical process are the most important source of enriching schoolchildren’s experience public relations And social behavior. Central location This group of methods includes exercises, i.e. systematically organized activity by repeated repetition of any actions in the interests of their consolidation in personal experience student.
Relatively independent group practical methods make up laboratory work- unique combination method practical actions with organized student observations. Laboratory method makes it possible to acquire skills and abilities in handling equipment, provides excellent conditions for developing the ability to measure and calculate, and process results.
Educational games are “specially created situations that simulate reality, from which students are asked to find a way out. Main purpose this method- stimulate cognitive process» .
Visual methods. Demonstration consists of sensory familiarization of students with phenomena, processes, objects in their in kind. This method serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also widely used to become familiar with appearance the subject, its internal device or location in a row of similar objects.
Illustration involves showing and perceiving objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using diagrams, posters, maps, etc.
Video method. The teaching and educational functions of this method are determined by the high efficiency of visual images. The use of the video method provides the opportunity to provide students with more complete and reliable information about the phenomena and processes being studied, free the teacher from some of the technical work associated with monitoring and correcting knowledge, and establish effective feedback.
The means of the pedagogical process are divided into visual (visual), which include original objects or their various equivalents, diagrams, maps, etc.; auditory (hearing), including radio, tape recorders, musical instruments etc., and audiovisual (visual-auditory) - sound cinema, television, programmed textbooks, teaching machines, computers, etc. that partially automate the learning process. It is also customary to divide teaching aids into means for the teacher and for students. The first are objects used by the teacher to more effectively implement educational goals. The second ones are individual means students, school books, notebooks, writing instruments, etc. In number didactic means also included are those with which both the teacher and students are involved: sports equipment, school botanical plots, computers, etc.
Training and education are always carried out within the framework of one form of organization or another.
All possible ways of organizing the interaction between teachers and students have found their way into the three main systems of organizational design of the pedagogical process. These include: 1) individual training and education; 2) class-lesson system, 3) lecture-seminar system.
The classroom-lesson form of organizing the pedagogical process is considered traditional.
A lesson is a form of organization of the pedagogical process in which “the teacher, for a precisely established time, directs the collective cognitive and other activities of a permanent group of students (class), taking into account the characteristics of each of them, using types, means and methods of work that create favorable conditions to ensure that all students acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as for the education and development cognitive abilities and spiritual strength of schoolchildren."
Features of the school lesson:
The lesson provides for the implementation of teaching functions in a complex (educational, developmental and nurturing);
The didactic structure of the lesson has a strict construction system:
A certain organizational beginning and setting the objectives of the lesson;
Update necessary knowledge and skills, including checking homework;
Explanation of new material;
Reinforcing or repeating what has been learned in class;
Control and evaluation educational achievements students during the lesson;
Summing up the lesson;
Homework assignment;
Each lesson is a link in the lesson system;
The lesson follows the basic principles of learning; in it the teacher applies a certain system of teaching methods and means to achieve the set goals of the lesson;
The basis for constructing a lesson is the skillful use of methods, teaching aids, as well as a combination of collective, group and individual forms of work with students and taking into account their individual psychological characteristics.
I highlight following types lessons:
A lesson introducing students to new material or communicating (studying) new knowledge;
Lesson to consolidate knowledge;
Lessons in developing and consolidating skills;
General lessons.
The lesson structure usually consists of three parts:
1. organization of work (1-3 min.), 2. main part (formation, assimilation, repetition, consolidation, control, application, etc.) (35-40 min.), 3. summing up and homework ( 2-3 min.).
The lesson as the main form is organically complemented by other forms of organizing the educational process. Some of them developed in parallel with the lesson, i.e. within the framework of the class-lesson system (excursion, consultation, homework, educational conferences, additional classes), others are borrowed from the lecture-seminar system and adapted taking into account the age of students (lectures, seminars, workshops, tests, exams).
