Various approaches and classifications of linguistic dictionaries. Dictionaries of specific vocabulary classes

Classification of dictionaries

The abstract “Classification of Dictionaries” gives a detailed structure of the typology of dictionaries. In this work, an attempt is made to present the dictionary classification system in an orderly form.

Introduction

According to the definition given in the encyclopedia, “ Dictionary is a collection of words (sometimes also morphemes or phrases) arranged in a certain order, used as a reference book that explains the meanings of the described units, gives various information about them or their translation into another language or provides information about the objects designated by them.”

Dictionaries reflect the knowledge possessed by a given society in a certain era. Dictionaries perform social functions: informative (allowing the shortest way - through notations - to gain access to accumulated knowledge) and normative (by recording the meanings and uses of words, they contribute to the improvement and unification of language as a means of communication).

Dictionaries can also provide grammatical information, etymology of words (their origin and historical development), derived forms (for example, plural forms in English) where they are unusual or difficult to form, synonyms and antonyms.

In this work, an attempt is made to present the dictionary classification system in an orderly form.

Classification of dictionaries

A prototypical dictionary is a monolingual explanatory dictionary, the task of which is to explain (interpret) the meanings of words and illustrate their use in speech. For a prototypical dictionary, the semiotic system is one or another natural language, the unit is the word, and the object of commenting is the semantic (notional) structure of the word. A word is associated with explanations (interpretations) of its meaning or meanings; sometimes there are also comments regarding certain features of the use of the word. The principle of organizing units in an explanatory dictionary is most often (but not always) alphabetical.

Dictionary classification is a multidimensional array of values ​​that defines the relationship of the dictionary according to many criteria.

Dictionaries can be classified:

The main characteristics are:

• Description object.
• Composition of objects.
• Composition of the description.
• Methods of description.

1.1. Dictionaries

1.2 Encyclopedias

1.3 Containing features of a dictionary and encyclopedia

1.3.1. Advanced dictionaries

1.3.2. Linguistic and regional dictionaries

1.3.3. Collections of linguistic expressions

1.3.4. Terminology dictionaries

2. In relation to the symbolic system being described.

2.1 Natural language dictionaries

2.2 Dictionaries of other semiotic systems

2.2.1. Character dictionaries

2.2.2. Dictionaries of non-verbal signs (gestures, facial expressions, postures)

3. In relation to the number of languages ​​used

3.1. Monolingual

3.2. Not monolingual

3.1.1. Translation dictionaries

Translation dictionaries of a special type are also linguistic and cultural dictionaries. In addition, translations of the words that form the titles of dictionary entries into one or more languages ​​can be included in linguistic dictionaries of almost all existing varieties; in practice this is most often done in terminology dictionaries.

A good translation dictionary is actually somewhat explanatory. Due to the fact that the semantic structure of most words is very complex, and the semantic systems of even close languages ​​are usually far from isomorphism, translation equivalents are given for different meanings words, and these equivalents can be completely different; Thus, the translation dictionary also contains information about the structure of the meaning of the words being translated. Quite detailed translation dictionaries also provide equivalents for various phrases, primarily non-free ones, and also provide pragmatic information related to the peculiarities of the use of the word. Sometimes in the dictionary entries of translated dictionaries there is also information of a linguistic, etymological and encyclopedic nature, although usually they try to avoid this.

4. By volume of inventory units

4.1. Dictionaries in which the unit of lexicographic description is a word (or some sign in dictionaries of non-verbal sign systems)

4.2. Sublexical dictionaries

Dictionaries in which the object of description is units smaller than a word.

4.2.1. Morpheme dictionaries

4.3. Supralexical dictionaries.

Dictionaries in which the object of description is units larger than a word.

4.3.1. Dictionaries of compatibility.

It should be noted that non-standard compatibility of linguistic units is always reflected to one degree or another in explanatory and translation dictionaries, but this is usually not done systematically.

4.3.2. Dictionaries of epithets

4.3.3. Explanatory and Combinatorial Dictionary (TCD)

4.3.4. Phraseological dictionaries

4.3.4.1. Dictionaries of popular words and expressions

4.3.4.2. Dictionaries of cliches.

4.3.4.3. Dictionaries of quotations.

5. According to sociocultural orientation

5.1. Descriptive dictionaries

Descriptive dictionaries aim to maximize full description vocabulary of a certain area and recording all the uses there. Assessing the quality of a descriptive dictionary depends on the degree of completeness with which the dictionary's vocabulary reflects the problem area and how accurately the meanings of the lexemes presented in the material are described.

5.1.1. Explanatory dictionaries of everyday language

5.1.2. Dictionaries of slangs and jargons

5.1.2. Dictionaries of profanity

In principle, the concept of a norm can also be applied to slang and jargon (and, paradoxically, even to profanity), but the norm in these areas of language is, as a rule, less stable and, most importantly, does not become the object of language policy states.

5.2. Prescriptive (Normative) dictionaries

5.2.1 Explanatory dictionaries of the literary language.

5.2.2 Dictionaries of language difficulties

5.2.3 Spelling and spelling dictionaries.

6. By semantic content

In a prototypical dictionary, semantic interpretation occupies the most important place along with the linguistic forms themselves that form the vocabulary of the lexicographic publication. There are, however, special types of dictionaries that deviate from the prototype, both in formal and in content.

6.1. Dictionaries of language forms

This generalizing term can be used to describe several different types of dictionaries, in which the features of the form of words and phrases of a language are recorded, while their interpretations are either absent altogether or play a purely auxiliary role. Typically, dictionaries of this type serve as reference books necessary for the correct construction of linguistic expressions in a particular language (including for automatic text synthesis).

6.2. Spelling dictionaries

6.3. Spelling dictionaries

Every printed spelling dictionary is also spelling; the converse, generally speaking, is not true. Both spelling and spelling dictionaries are actually a list of headwords from explanatory articles normative dictionary, presented without interpretation, with only short notes on some words.

Other types of dictionaries are intended mainly for specialists.

6.4. Word-formation dictionaries

6.5. Grammar dictionaries

6.6. Reverse dictionaries

6.7. Frequency dictionaries

6.8. Dictionaries of concordances

6.9. Ideographic dictionaries

6.10. thesauri

6.11. Associative dictionaries

One can easily imagine other types of ideographic dictionaries - for example, dictionaries of analogies and dictionaries of ideologemes; There really are dictionaries of plots. Ideographic dictionaries also include dictionaries of political concepts.

7. Historically oriented

7.1. Historical dictionaries

7.2. Etymological dictionaries

8. Regarding the reflection of the entire vocabulary

Based on the nature of the vocabulary being inventoried, dictionaries - primarily explanatory - are divided into general, which claim to describe the entire vocabulary of the language, and private, in which the vocabulary displayed is limited for one reason or another. The number of varieties of private dictionaries and the basis for selecting vocabulary for inclusion in their dictionaries is very large.

8.1. Dictionaries of regional and private dialects

8.1.1. General dialect dictionaries

8.1.2. Private dialect dictionaries

8.1.3. Dictionaries of jargons and slangs of the Russian language

8.2. Dictionaries of specific vocabulary classes

8.2.1. Dictionary of synonyms

8.2.2. Dictionary of antonyms.

8.2.3. Dictionary of homonyms

8.2.3. Dictionary of paronyms

8.2.4. Dictionary dictionaries of new words (neologisms)

8.2.5. Dictionary of foreign words

8.2.6. Dictionaries of abbreviations

By definition to the number of dictionaries certain classes vocabulary includes all terminological dictionaries.

8.3. Onomasticons - dictionaries of proper names

8.3.1. Anthroponymic dictionaries

8.3.2. Toponymic dictionaries

8.4. Idiolexical dictionaries

Dictionary descriptions are combined under this not generally accepted name lexical features forms of existence of language characteristic of clearly identifiable social subjects, individual (such as the “language of Lenin”, “the language of Zhirinovsky” or “the language of Prokhanov”), group (such as the “language of the MK” or the “language of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation”) or metaphorical (such as the “language of liberalism” ").

8.4.1. Copyright dictionaries

Literature used

P.B. Parshin: “Types of dictionaries and principles and methods of lexicographic description.”

Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. "Modern Russian language".

Great Soviet Encyclopedia - online version.

Classification of dictionaries taking into account the characteristics of a word

Mattress

Various approaches to classifying linguistic dictionaries

Linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries

Description object linguistic dictionaries- linguistic units: words, morphemes, combinations of words, phraseological units. Description object encyclopedic dictionaries- scientific and sometimes everyday concepts, historical events, geographical realities, biographies famous people etc.

Encyclopedic dictionaries are divided into universal, special (industry) and regional.

Universal encyclopedias provide a systematic body of knowledge from various areas life of society, from various branches of science, etc. Special or industry encyclopedias contain a systematized body of knowledge from one area of ​​science, culture, technology, and production.

Towards universal encyclopedias include:

* Great Soviet Encyclopedia: 30 volumes, 3rd ed. - M., 1970–1978;

* Large encyclopedic dictionary: in 2 volumes - M., 2001, etc.

Special encyclopedias are:

* Encyclopedia. Russian language. - M., 1990;

* Encyclopedia literary works. - M., 1998;

* Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes - M., 1987–1988;

* Biblical Encyclopedia: 2 volumes - M., 1991.

Regional encyclopedias:

* Don Cossack Encyclopedia. - Rostov-on-Don, 1994.

Special type form biographical And personal encyclopedic dictionaries.

Biographical dictionaries provide information about the lives and activities of people who became famous in any field. For example: “Russian writers. 1800–1917" (1989–1994); " Politicians. 1917" (1993); " Russian abroad. golden book emigration. First third of the 20th century. Encyclopedic Biographical Dictionary" (1997).

Regional biographical dictionaries are published. For example: “The Science of the Don in Persons” (1996); “Women of Rostov” (2002).

Personal encyclopedic dictionaries contain material about the life and work of one outstanding person. For example: “Lermontov Encyclopedia” (1981); “Pushkin Encyclopedia” (1999), “Bulgakov Encyclopedia” (1996).

Dictionaries published at the end of the last century make it possible to distinguish a new type of encyclopedic dictionary - popular science. Many dictionary entries in such an encyclopedic dictionary are stories, sometimes large or sometimes small, depending on the object of description. An example is “Popular bible dictionary"A. Pavlovsky (1994); “Culinary Dictionary” by V.V. Pokhlebkina (1996) and others.

The terms “encyclopedic dictionary” and “encyclopedia” in modern scientific literature are used as synonyms. However, the term encyclopedia is more often used when it comes to a universal multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary.

Topic 2. Typologies of linguistic dictionaries

Language is a system. As a system, it consists of units (morphemes, words, phraseological units, phrases, etc.), between which there are various connections and relationships. The task of linguistic dictionaries is to characterize not only a word, but also other units of language - phraseological units, phrases, morphemes, taking into account all their inherent characteristics. This is precisely the reason for the presence in lexicography significant amount a wide variety of dictionaries and, accordingly, the ability to classify them differently.

1.1. According to the method of arrangement of interpreted words, phrases, expressions(that is, in accordance with the parameter of the organization of vocabulary material) dictionaries are allocated alphabetical, word-formation-nesting And ideographic.

A significant part of the dictionaries are ALPHABETIC - explanatory, spelling, spelling, etymological, etc.

Alphabetical are also called reverse dictionaries. In them, words are arranged taking into account not the initial, but the final letters, and then the comparison of letters proceeds from the end of the word to the beginning. For example:

toad tub

slave Argonaut

amoeba therapist

study diabetes

puck covenant

amba apologist

The first two reverse dictionaries of the Russian language were published almost simultaneously: one edited by H. Bielfelt in the GDR (1958), the other edited by M. Vasmer in the Federal Republic of Germany (1958–1959). The next “Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published in Moscow in 1974, ed. M.S. Sheveleva. It has 125,000 words. Reverse dictionaries play an important role in the study of morphology, word formation, phonetics (the study of the relationship between stress and the morphological or phonemic composition of a word).

Reverse (or inversion) the order of words was adopted in the first “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A.A. Zaliznyak, published in 1977. It contains 100,000 words. In it, with the help of a clearly constructed system of symbols, modern inflection is presented, i.e. Declension of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verb conjugation. As is known, words with a similar ending (and not a similar beginning) have the same or similar type of inflection (i.e., declension and conjugation) in the Russian language. Thus, with an inversion arrangement, words with the same or similar type of inflection usually appear nearby (for example, nouns in -enie, nouns on -Nick, adjectives ending in - th, verbs starting with - ovate etc.).

The second type includes dictionaries in which words are arranged according to the word-formation-cluster (or alphabetical-cluster) method. This method is mainly typical for word-formation dictionaries. In accordance with it, primitive, producing words are arranged alphabetically, and all words with the same root and derivatives from them are placed in the dictionary entries of primitive words.

The first “Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language” by A.N. Tikhonov in 2 volumes was published in 1985 and combined about 145,000 words into word-forming nests. The dictionary consists of a “Preface”, an article “How to use the dictionary” and two theoretical articles: “How the dictionary is built” and “Basic concepts of Russian word formation”. According to A.N. Tikhonov, special difficulties in compiling a nested word-formation dictionary were caused by such questions as the lexical composition of nests, nesting of cognate words, ways of representing the word-formation structure of a word, ways of reflecting the stepwise nature of Russian word formation, etc. ( Tikhonov, A.N. Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language: In 2 volumes - M., 1985. - P. 3).

Here are examples of dictionary entries with source words and their variants:

myocardium, myocardium(s)

myocardium -it

mattress- Nick I Specialist in the manufacture of mattresses

mattress- Nick II Mattress cover

mattress- n th

on-mattress- Nick

Reflection in the dictionary of the multi-stage formation of words:

trouble(s)

bad- stv-O

troubles -ov- th

pre-poor

bad- stvova-th

disaster neitherJ-e [distress]

disasters (- andJ-f) [disaster]

disasters enne th

on- to be poor -xia

By- to be poor

troubles -ova- t

A.N. Tikhonov also owns the “School Word Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1978, 3rd ed. – 1996).

The word-formation-cluster method of representing words is found in some explanatory dictionaries, for example, in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl (1863-1866). With this method, the dictionary entry, in addition to the original word, also contains derivatives of the same root. So, in dictionary entry with the original word hand explained: sleeve, sleeve, mitten, mitten, mitten, manual, hand-grinding, hand-grinding, handle, hilt, hand-breakers, hand-blessing, lead, guide, hand-gazer, washstand, hand-to-hand etc. In total, the dictionary entry contains about 100 words.

This method was also chosen by the compilers of the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” (in 17 volumes; M.-L., 1948-1965). However, it was used only in the first three volumes. The remaining fourteen articles follow in alphabetical order. The change in the way dictionary entries are arranged is explained by the fact that the word-formation-cluster method makes searching difficult necessary word. Therefore, the compilers of the SSRLYA were forced to provide the first volumes with an alphabetical index (it is not included in V.I. Dahl’s explanatory dictionary). Compiling it is labor-intensive work. In addition, it occupies a certain area. In the first volume of the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” the alphabetical index is printed on 32 pages, in the second volume on 37, in the third on 43 pages.

The third type is dictionaries that use the IDEOGRAPHIC way of formatting words. It is based on the connection between the vocabulary system and the reality system. The famous Russian-Polish linguist N.V. was one of the first to write about such a connection. Krushevsky (1851–1887) in “Essay on the Science of Language” (1883): “ We must never lose sight of the basic character of language: a word is a sign of a thing.<…>Words must be classified in our minds into the same groups as the things they mean.».

The ideographic method, as linguists testify, arose earlier than the alphabetic one. Known, for example, is the Onomasticon, created in the 2nd century. AD lexicographer and sophist Julius Pollux on the material Greek language. The Onomasticon was first published in 1502 in Venice. It consists of 10 books. Each book is a treatise and contains the most significant words related to a particular topic. Thus, the fourth book deals with education, grammar and rhetoric; philosophers and sophists; poets and musicians; musical instruments; dances and theaters; about astronomy; medicine and diseases.

The first ideographic dictionary - “Thesaurus English words and Expressions" by Peter Mark Roger (1852). Roger began compiling the dictionary by identifying four large conceptual classes:

* abstract relationships;

* space;

* matter;

He, in turn, divided each class into a number of genera, which he divided into species. Moreover, each type includes numbered groups, of which there are 1000. The selected groups are designated by words with broad semantics. They serve as initial ones and head a whole series of words with similar meanings.

Compilation of ideographic dictionaries is one of the new directions in lexicography. Currently published: “Russian semantic dictionary. Experience of automatic construction of a thesaurus from concept to word” edited by S.G. Barkhudarov (1982); “Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language” O.S. Baranova (1995); “Thematic Dictionary of the Russian Language” L.G. Sayakhova, D.M. Khasanova, V.V. Morkovkina (2000) and others.

A special place in modern lexicography is occupied by the Russian Semantic Dictionary. Explanatory dictionary, systematized by classes of words and meanings" under general edition N.Yu. Shvedova in six volumes (M., T. 1–1998; T. 2–2000; T. 3–2003). The main task of the dictionary is to present the vocabulary of the Russian language as a hierarchical system that reflects the linguistic picture of the world.

The preface details theoretical foundations dictionary

Volume I contains 39,000 words and phraseological units and is devoted to the description of the lexical-semantic system of the class of pronouns, as well as those classes of nouns that name all living things (people, animals, plant organisms) and natural realities.

Volume II contains 40,000 words and phraseological expressions. It describes nouns that name the material products of human activity (settled areas, cultivated areas, roads; material products of labor; organizations and institutions).

Volume III consists of 30,000 words and phraseological units. It contains a description of abstract nouns. All of them together form lexical classes and their conditional associations:

* “Genesis. Matter. Space. Time";

* “Connections, relationships, content and form. Structure. Method";

* “Spiritual world: consciousness, morality, feelings”;

* “Information, speech”;

* “Faith, religion”;

* “Works of creative thought: science, teaching, art”;

* “Society, its life, foundations.”

A dictionary entry is a description of one single word(if this word has only one meaning) or (if the word is polysemous) a description of a separate meaning related to a given lexical branch.

The dictionary entry consists of the following zones:

1) the word meaning being interpreted;

2) grammatical and, in necessary cases, spelling information;

3) stylistic and, where required, chronological notes;

4) definition of meaning;

5) illustrative material;

6) phraseological combinations and idioms;

7) the nearest word-formation nest.

1.2. Classification of dictionaries depending on the unit of lexicographic description.

A unit of lexicographic description can be larger than a word or smaller. In accordance with this, the first group includes dictionaries of phraseological units, aphorisms, proverbs and sayings, quotes, phrases, dictionaries of word compatibility. The second group includes dictionaries in which the language unit is smaller than the word (for example, morphemic).

1.3 According to the language parameter dictionaries are highlighted untranslatable, monolingual And transferable, which may be bilingual And multilingual.

1.4 Depending on the volume parameter(number of words explained), several groups of dictionaries are distinguished:

* minimum dictionaries for foreigners and educational dictionaries (volume - from 2,000 to 20,000 words): “School phrasebook Russian language" V.P. Zhukov (1980), “School Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. F.P. Filina (1981);

* one-volume dictionaries with a volume of 30-70,000 words: “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegova (1990 – 22nd ed., about 57,000 words);

* medium-sized dictionaries, which include from 70,000 to 100,000 words, widely illustrate their use with examples from fiction: small academic “Dictionary of the Russian Language” in 4 volumes, ed. A.P. Evgenieva (2nd ed., 1981-1984, over 90,000 words);

* large academic dictionaries (120-180,000 words): the 17-volume “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” (1950-1965) contains over 120,000 words and in the number of “paragraphs” (dictionary entries) exceeds the academic two-volume “Russian Grammar” ( 1980) almost 40 times. "Dictionary German language"The Brothers Grimm in 16 volumes (published for a hundred years - from 1854 to 1954), "The Great Oxford Dictionary of the English Language" (developed over half a century - from 1879 to 1928).

This classification considered the most extensive and universal. The following parameters of word characteristics are distinguished:

· external shape - F;

· internal content ( lexical meaning) - S;

· etymology of the word;

· morphemic composition, word-formation structure;

· relationship between form and meaning:

There are 4 types of relationship between form and meaning of the words being compared, as a result of which the following are distinguished:

homonyms : outfit(“clothes”) and outfit(“direction to work”);

synonyms : walk, trudge;

antonyms: light, darkness;

paronyms: subscriber, subscription

Grammatical features of the word (gender of nouns, declension, formation verb forms, management, agreement of words, etc.);

Active or passive use of words in speech;

Sphere of use of words (words of limited use - dialect, slang, argot, professional vocabulary).

In accordance with the described parameters, philological dictionaries are divided into eight types:

To the first type include spelling, spelling and accentological dictionaries.

Second type- These are explanatory dictionaries.

To the third type include etymological and historical dictionaries.

To the fourth type include word-formation dictionaries and dictionaries of morphemes.

Fifth type linguistic dictionaries - dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.

To the sixth type include dictionaries that explain the morphological or syntactic features of words in the Russian language. The creation of such dictionaries is a new direction in domestic lexicography, which began to take shape since the appearance of the first “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” compiled by A.A. Zaliznyak and published in 1977. Purpose grammar dictionaries- describe the morphological and syntactic properties words; indicate which part of speech it belongs to, what grammatical meaning and what forms it has; what forms does it lack; Does it have options, which one is normal:

Dictionary entry I:

1 I ms ∆: R., V. me, D., P. to me, T. by me // by me;

with ○ (aware of oneself as an entity)

2 I with ○ (name of the letter i)

The numbers 1, 2 on the left just above the letters indicate that these are homonyms. The first homonym has the mark ms, which means "pronoun-noun". After the ∆ sign the paradigm of the word is given. The sign // indicates the presence variant form V instrumental case. On the second line of the dictionary entry the letter With indicates that the pronoun I acts as a noun, and its figurative meaning is formulated in brackets. The ○ sign means that as a noun the word I doesn't bow. Second article: homonym I is an indeclinable (○) noun.

Along with the general grammar dictionary, dictionaries began to appear devoted to one or more complex grammatical phenomena: the dictionary-reference book “Management in the Russian Language” by D.E. Rosenthal (1981), “Russian Verb and Its Participial Forms” by I.K. Sazonova (1989).

In 1996, the “Lexico-Grammatical Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N.P. was published. Kolesnikov (it consists of the “Dictionary unbending words" and "Dictionary monosyllabic words(monosyllabs)"). The first dictionary contains more than 2000 indeclinable words:

Lino. Wed. (French linon) - a type of white thin linen, cambric; canvas, cambric of this type.

It is also used in the form of the inflected noun husband. kind: linon, -a.

The second dictionary contains about 4,000 Russian and borrowed words different parts speeches that are monosyllabic:

Duty - noun husband. them. and wine units book

The first one deserves special attention.” Syntax dictionary: Repertoire elementary units Russian syntax" G.A. Zolotov (M., 1988). This is a normative semantic-grammatical dictionary. The main unit of description is the syntax of the Russian language, i.e. minimal semantic-syntactic unit.

Seventh type– these are dictionaries that describe passive vocabulary (outdated words, neologisms, rare words, agnonyms).

Within this type, agnonym dictionaries are attracted by their name:

Morkovkin, V.V. Russian agnonyms (words that we do not know) / V.V. Morkovkin, A.V. Morkovkina. – M., 1997.

Linguistic term agnonym, like the philosophical terms agnosticism, agnostic, go back to Greek words gnōsis - “knowledge, cognition”, agnōstos - “unknowable”. Agnonyms include words that a native speaker may not know at all; have a vague idea of ​​what they mean.

The main source from which the authors drew material was the academic “Dictionary of the Russian Language” in 4 volumes. Each agnonymous word in the dictionary is briefly interpreted, has a stylistic note, an etymological note and an indication of which thematic group it applies, for example: to the names of clothes, musical instruments, units of measurement, to this or that science. These and other groups are presented in the ideographic part of the dictionary “Lexical basis of the Russian language”.

Sample dictionary entries:

IMPERIAL 1, (established) Russian gold coin of 10 rubles, and after 1897 - 15 rubles.

IMPERIAL 2. The upper part of a horse-drawn carriage or omnibus with seats for passengers.

Dictionaries that reflect special, dialect vocabulary, jargon, and argotisms belong to eighth type linguistic dictionaries.

The word “thesaurus” is borrowed from the ancient Greek language with the meaning “treasury” and is used in two meanings: 1) a dictionary in which all the words of the language are presented as fully as possible with an exhaustive list of their use in texts; 2) ideographic a dictionary that shows semantic relations(genus-species, synonymous) between lexical units. A thesaurus in the first sense is feasible only for dead languages: “Thesaurus linguae latinae” (since 1900), also “Dictionary of the Polish Language” (1966). The structural basis of a thesaurus in the 2nd meaning is a hierarchical system of concepts that provide a search from semantic to lexical units (that is, a search for words based on a concept): “Thesaurus of English words and expressions” by P.M. Roger (1852; to date it has been published more than 100 times), the ideographic dictionary of the German language by F. Dornseif (1933), etc. see question 1). In the practice of information work, they have become widespread information retrieval thesauri, main task of which is the uniform replacement of lexical units of text with standardized words and expressions (descriptors) when indexing documents (knowing the basic terms used in scientific work, you can use such a thesaurus to significantly reduce the search time): “Information retrieval thesaurus in linguistics” (1977) .

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

OOO Training center"PROFESSIONAL"

Abstract on the discipline:

"English: linguistics and intercultural communications»

On topic:

"Principles of classification of dictionaries"

Executor:

Nazmieva Nadezhda Asgatovna

Full name

Moscow 2018

Content:

Introduction 3

From the history of Russian lexicography 4

Dictionary functions 5

Classification of dictionaries 7

Types of dictionaries according to Shcherba 9

Dictionary entry 10

Conclusion 11

References 12

Introduction

Currently, the school sets itself the task of educating comprehensively developed personality able to independently obtain knowledge and apply it. Speech, oral and written, is the most important condition for acquiring knowledge. The student can gain knowledge in various ways: listening to a teacher explain or independently studying a topic. The teacher’s task is to develop the student’s interest in learning, to interest him, and to instill the skills of independently obtaining some information. To gain new knowledge, a student always needs to turn to a book, because, as you know, source book knowledge. But it is not always possible to get a capacious, concise and sufficient full explanation one or another phenomenon or concept. This is where a dictionary comes to the rescue.

A. France, famous writer said: “A dictionary is a book of books.” Already from the first grade, the teacher teaches students to refer to different dictionaries.

A dictionary is a reference book that contains words with explanations, interpretations, translations, arranged according to a certain principle.

Currently exists large number differentdictionaries, since the language is complex and multifaceted. In addition, people need to receive the most various information. And there is no way to provide in one dictionary all the comprehensive information that would suit absolutely everyone.

Dictionaries are very diverse in their purpose, volume, nature and methods of presenting information.

The use of dictionaries improves speech culture and helps develop logical thinking.

The role of dictionaries can hardly be overestimated, since they are guardians and accumulators of knowledge.

Purpose of the study: study the principles of classification of dictionaries.

Research methods and tools: studying scientific and methodological literature, analysis, use of Internet resources.

From the history of Russian lexicography

The main stages in the history of Russian vocabulary in general outline coincide with the stages of development of lexicography in Western Europe.

At the origins of vocabulary in Rus', as in the West, are handwritten glossaries; the earliest surviving glossary contains 174 words and dates back to 1282. The discrepancy between book Church Slavonic and spoken Old Russian, as well as the needs of communicating with foreigners, especially Greeks, led to the emergence of Ancient Rus' several types of dictionaries, among which it is customary to distinguish between dictionaries of proper names (onomasticons, for example, a dictionary of biblical names calledSpeech of the Jewish language ); so-called tributaries (from the word “parable”) - collections of words to which symbolic meaning was attributed; Slavic-Russian dictionaries that interpreted incomprehensible words book language(For example,Interpretation of the inconvenience of cognizable speech ); and translation dictionaries (for example,Speech of Greek subtlety ).

In the 16th century New principles for compiling dictionaries are being formed, in particular, the alphabetical principle of arranging material is gradually being established. With the advent of printing, printed dictionaries were also published. The first one,Lexis, that is, sayings briefly collected from Slovenian [those. Church Slavonic, not to be confused with modern Slovenian]language into simple Russian dialect interpreted Lavrentiy Zizaniy Tustanovsky was published in Vilna (Vilnius) in 1596. In 1627, a much larger volume (about 7 thousand words) was published in Kyiv.Slavic Russian lexicon and interpretation of names Pamva Berynda, republished in 1653 and had a significant influence on subsequent dictionaries. During the same period, numerous translation dictionaries appeared.

Dictionary functions

Most people have to deal with only a few “classical” types of dictionaries: explanatory ones, which one turns to when wanting to find out the meaning of some (usually incomprehensible) word; bilingual; spelling and spelling, in which they ask about how to correctly write or pronounce a particular word; and perhaps etymological. In reality, the variety of types of dictionaries is much greater. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographical tradition and are accessible to the Russian reader.

The primary function of a dictionary is to describe the meanings of words, and the dictionary descriptions, or interpretations, should be clear and understandable, if possible without the use of words that are less common and less understandable than the word itself. Usually more are interpreted first common meanings, followed by rarer ones. Because specific meaning words often depend on context; more detailed dictionaries provide examples of words used in different contexts.

In addition to interpretations and examples of use, dictionaries include a rich store of linguistic information. They are a generally accepted source of information about the correct spelling and pronunciation of words, giving preferred and alternative pronunciations and spellings in cases where more than one is allowed, as in the case of English.theater Andtheater "theater",catalog Andcatalog "catalogue" or in Russian.galoshes Andgaloshes . Dictionaries may also provide grammatical information, the etymology of words (their origins and historical development), derived forms (for example, plural forms in English) where they are unusual or difficult to form, synonyms and antonyms. Larger dictionaries include technical terms, geographical names, foreign words and biographical articles. More often, however, these types of information are distributed across different types more private dictionaries.

Because the fast pace modern life correspond to constant changes in the language, dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. New words should be included in frequently republished dictionaries in the order in which they are added. Equally important are completeness and thoroughness. The most comprehensive are complete (as opposed to abbreviated) dictionaries, defined in the English lexicographical tradition as unabridged. For the English language, for example, such dictionaries contain more than 400 thousand words.

The criteria for choosing a dictionary depend on the age of the user and the situations in which he intends to work with the dictionary. For example, the complex structure of dictionaries for adults can frustrate and scare away younger students, and therefore for elementary and high school special dictionaries are compiled.

Basic principles of dictionary classification

One of the most important is the division of dictionaries by content into encyclopedic and linguistic. Encyclopedic dictionaries reflect ideas about the world around us or about its individual fragments, concepts of a certain field of knowledge, etc. Linguistic dictionaries describe linguistic units - mainly words, as well as morphemes, phraseological units, etc. The main type of linguistic monolingual dictionaries are explanatory.

Linguistic dictionaries can use material from one or more languages. Depending on this, dictionaries are divided into monolingual, bilingual and multilingual. Monolingual dictionaries operate with material from one language (for example, various dictionaries of the Russian language). Bilingual dictionaries (translations) present material in two languages. Such dictionaries are actively used in studying foreign language, when translating from one language to another.

IN special group historical dictionaries can be distinguished. Historical linguistic dictionaries, as a rule, describe the history of the development of a word in a certain period, relying on written records, data from dialects and related languages.

A special type of historical dictionary is an etymological dictionary, which explains origins. Etymological dictionaries are based on data from various fields of knowledge, using information on the history of the people, religion, culture, archeology, ethnography, etc.

There are types of linguistic dictionaries depending on the establishment and description systemic relations between words. Structural organization The lexical system of a language is reflected in dictionaries of homonyms, synonyms, and antonyms. Dictionaries of paronyms are devoted to the peculiar relationships between individual lexemes. The structure of word formation and word-formation connections of lexemes are described in word-formation dictionaries.

Dictionaries can reflect both commonly used vocabulary and vocabulary of a special field of use, which is classified according to the following parameters:

Conversational vocabulary oral speech;

Profanity, including elements of abusive and expressive vocabulary, as well as special vocabulary social groups;

Dialectal vocabulary of individual regions;

Special vocabulary, used by certain branches of science and technology;

Poetic vocabulary works of art

3. Dictionary classifications:

Usually at school we introduce students to several types of dictionaries: explanatory, spelling, spelling, bilingual. In fact, there are many more types of dictionaries.

Dictionaries are classified by:

Contents of lexicographic information;

Selection of vocabulary;

Method of description;

Unit of lexicographic description;

The order of the material;

The number of languages ​​in the dictionary;

Purpose.

By description object:

A)encyclopedic – information about objects, phenomena, events that are indicated by words; do not contain prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, particles, few verbs; are created by specialists in different areas knowledge.Object: subject and concept

b)linguistic – describe the word and give its meanings, point out the grammatical, spelling, orthoepic features of words, and stylistic affiliation; created by philologists, linguists, lexicographers.Object: word

According to the volume of the dictionary.Measured in thousands of words.

According to the language used to describe the input units of the dictionary:

a) monolingual (explanatory, slang, language of a specific writer, synonyms, antonyms, neologisms) - a unit and its description in one language.

b) translated (bilingual, multilingual)

By describing individual functional varieties of language.In certain areas of communication and with a certain function. Nr, scientific field– dictionary of terms; territorial dialect; literary language, etc.

By unit of description of the dictionary:

a) words – synonyms, antonyms, homonyms
b) phraseological units

In word order:

a) in alphabetical order (either words - linguistic dictionaries, or concepts or names of concepts - ideographic dictionary - thesaurus, generic units)
Dictionary options:

1. Dictionary structure: introduction, preface; how to use; transcription; abbreviations and explanations; main list of words; additional material(applications).

2. Structure of a dictionary entry: depends on the specific dictionary. The title word that opens the article; main part (description of the features of the word); quotes and illustrations.

4. Types of dictionaries according to Shcherba:
1) Academic type dictionary - reference dictionary.Academic type dictionary is normative, describing lexical system given language: it should not contain facts that contradict modern usage.Dictionaries and reference books may contain information about more wide circle words that go beyond the boundaries of standard literary language.

2) Encyclopedic Dictionary - general dictionary.

3) A thesaurus is an ordinary (explanatory or translation) dictionary. A thesaurus is considered a dictionary that lists all the words found in given language at least once. The usual ideological (ideographic) dictionary, words-concepts are classified in such a way as to show their living relationship.

5. Dictionary entry.

Dictionaries consist of dictionary entries. A dictionary entry is a text that explains a heading unit and describes its main parameters.

The dictionary entry begins with a title, which is highlighted in bold. in capital letters. There must be an accent. Also in the dictionary entry there are marks: grammatical, stylistic. Then comes dictionary definition, stable speed, derivative words. Illustrative material may also be present in a dictionary entry.

The combination of headwords forms the vocabulary of the dictionary. The totality of all dictionary entries forms the dictionary corpus.

Conclusion

Dictionaries and reference books are constant companions of our lives, serving us to expand knowledge and improve linguistic culture. They are deservedly called satellites of civilization. Dictionaries are truly an inexhaustible treasury national language, and it is also a tool of knowledge, and an intellectual guide, and simply fascinating reading. The habit of using dictionaries is one of the most useful among those that a person receiving a serious education can acquire.

This paper examined the main classifications of dictionaries. It should be emphasized that the main task of the theory of lexicography today is not so much to create a universal classification, but to develop methods for describing each separate dictionary as a type, taking into account the subsequent use of such a description for various pragmatic purposes: informational, forecasting, scientific, educational, etc.

To summarize, we can highlight the following:

When choosing a dictionary, everything will depend on the age of the user and the situations in which he plans to work with the dictionary.

When selecting a dictionary, you can see its classification and divide it into:the object of description, the volume of the dictionary, the language of description of input units, the description of individual functional varieties of the language, the order of words, etc.

Our fast pace of modern life is matched by constant changes in language, so dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time, and completeness and thoroughness are equally important.

List of used literature:

Kozyrev V.A. Russian lexicography: a manual for universities / V.A. Kozyrev. - M.: Bustard, 2004. - 288 p.

V. I. Maksimova. Russian language and speech culture. Moscow 2003 – 136 p.

Maslov, Yu. S. Introduction to linguistics. St. Petersburg: Philol. Faculty of St. Petersburg State University; M.: Academy, 2006. - 201 p.

Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / O.Ya. Goikhman, L.M. Goncharova and others - M.: INFRA - M, 2003 - 192 p.

D.E. Rosenthal, I.B. Golub "Secrets of Stylistics". - M.: Rolf, 1996 - 208 p.

Russian language. Encyclopedia. Ch. ed.F.P. Owl. - M.: " Soviet encyclopedia", 1979. - 432 p.

Ushakov D.N. Large explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Modern edition. - Slavic House of Books, 2014. - P. 620. - slovarey -i...

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Dictionaries are a type of publication that will be useful to any native speaker. Someone turns to them to find out the meaning of a new word, someone looks at the translation of a word into another language, someone chooses a synonym, and much more. A dictionary is a book that contains language units, systematized in a certain order, usually alphabetical. They may be written in one, two or more languages.

The science that deals with compiling dictionaries is called lexicography. In addition to the direct description of language units, it is engaged in their collection and systematization. In general, the function of dictionaries can be described as follows: recording and storing knowledge about the world or language. Dictionaries, due to their diversity, require careful classification.

General classification

So, below we will consider the division of all dictionaries.

According to their content, all dictionaries can be divided into two groups:

• linguistic (philological) dictionaries. Their function is to provide information about linguistic units with different points vision. For example, explanatory dictionaries, synonym dictionaries, word-formation dictionaries, etc.
• encyclopedic dictionaries. They contain information about a variety of phenomena and concepts. For example, Collier's Encyclopedia, F.A. Encyclopedic Dictionary. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron, Encyclopedia Britannica etc.

The difference between these types of dictionaries can be seen in the example of specific dictionary entries. For example, in a classic explanatory dictionary a word is given, then its grammatical features, direct interpretation and examples of use. An encyclopedic dictionary usually gives the word, its origin, a more specific definition, varieties, etc. Thus, the word “water” in the first dictionary will be given in several meanings, one of which is figurative meaning; in the second dictionary it will be described from a chemical point of view.

Based on the principle of vocabulary selection, the following are distinguished:

• dictionaries-thesauruses. They present all the vocabulary of the language and examples of their use in context. For example, the Oxford Dictionary, which contains more than 300 thousand entries.
• private dictionaries. They contain vocabulary selected by certain criteria. For example, a dictionary of paronyms, a terminological dictionary, a dictionary of slang, etc.

According to the method of describing units, dictionaries are divided into:

• general. In such dictionaries, linguistic units are described in several aspects. Such dictionaries include: explanatory dictionaries, reference dictionaries, etc.
• special. Words are described from one point of view: origin (etymological), pronunciation (orthoepic); education (word formation)

Dictionaries are divided from the point of view of the unit being described:

• morphemic. For example, dictionaries of root morphemes, frequency word-formation dictionaries, explanatory dictionaries of affixal morphemes, word-formation dictionaries.
• dictionaries in which the unit is the word. For example, a spelling dictionary, an explanatory dictionary, a dictionary of synonyms, etc.
• dictionaries in which the unit being described is larger than a word. For example, a dictionary of phraseological units, a dictionary of popular expressions, a dictionary of proverbs and sayings, etc.

According to the order of entries, dictionaries are divided into:

• alphabetical. This type of dictionary is the most common, since this arrangement of units makes it easy to find the necessary dictionary entry. This includes most linguistic dictionaries: explanatory, spelling, spelling, etc.
• ideographic. Information in such dictionaries is organized by topic. It is rarely found in its pure form. Dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms are built according to alphabetical and thematic criteria. In its pure form in the Russian language there is an ideographic dictionary edited by O.S. Baranova. The publication consists of departments, sections, subsections and articles, which are provided with links, and at the end there is an alphabetical index.
• associative. One of the new types of dictionaries. Words are arranged according to associations. In Russian lexicography, the most famous ones were published under the editorship of A.A. Leontyeva, Yu.N. Karaulova, G.A. Cherkasova.

Dictionaries are divided depending on the number of languages ​​presented in the publication:

• monolingual. The name speaks for itself: the dictionary is compiled in a specific national language. For example, an explanatory dictionary, a paronym dictionary, a phraseological dictionary, etc.
• bilingual. Dictionary in two languages. This includes all kinds of translation dictionaries: English-Russian, German-Russian, Turkish-Russian dictionary, etc.
• multilingual. They are less common than the previous ones. Information is presented in more than two languages. For example, “Multilingual technical dictionary: German-English-Finnish-Swedish-Russian.”

According to the purpose of use, dictionaries are divided into:

• scientific. They are used for scientific purposes by scientists, specialists in a certain field of science. These include: grammatical, historical dictionaries, dictionaries of terms, etc.
• educational. This includes mini-dictionaries of various genres. They are used for educational purposes. They differ from scientific dictionaries in their more accessible language and fewer units represented. For example, a school phraseological, spelling, explanatory dictionary, dictionary of accents, etc.
• transferable. They are used to convey linguistic units of one language through another language. For example, Russian-Italian, Spanish-Russian, Russian-Kazakh dictionary.
• reference. Such dictionaries are intended for a native speaker who can seek reference information about a language unit. For example, “Antiquity from A to Z. Dictionary-reference book”, “Dictionary-reference book on punctuation”, etc.

In Russian lexicography there is no single classification of dictionaries accepted by all scientists. The first attempts to systematize the types of dictionaries belonged to the great linguist L. V. Shcherba. The classification presented above covers only the general principles of the distribution of dictionaries by type. This division is not exhaustive, but gives a general idea of ​​the types of dictionaries.

Usmanova Diana Akhmatzhanovna

Introduction

Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Lexicographic sources

2.What is a dictionary?

Types of dictionaries and principles of their distribution

Conclusion

Basic literature

Introduction

All the richness and diversity of the language's vocabulary is collected in dictionaries. It is difficult to imagine what would happen in our lives without dictionaries and reference books. Where and how would we find the meaning of a new word, the correct spelling, pronunciation, or an explanation of some event? Dictionaries and reference books are used by many: translators, students, specialists working in various fields of activity.

The mighty Russian language is great and diverse, and its dictionaries are just as diverse. Vocabulary composition any living language is in continuous change and addition. New words appear that reflect the development modern science, culture, art, unused words are marked obsolete.

Dictionaries are an element of national culture, because words capture many aspects of national life.

Lexicography as a branch of linguistics

Lexicography is one of the most important branches of linguistics, especially today - in times of globalization. If we talk in simple language, then lexicography

This is the science of compiling dictionaries

The science of lexicography, as it is known today, is strikingly different from its early period. The so-called pre-dictionary period is the time when science explained incomprehensible and obscure words. In different civilizations, the pre-dictionary period lasted for different periods of time.

If we talk about the early vocabulary period, then it includes lexicography, which studies literary language, which for many peoples was very different from everyday speech. Early lexicography includes explanations of ancient Greek monolingual writing, Sanskrit, etc.

Later, translator dictionaries appeared that provided explanations for the words and names of other peoples. It was lexicography passive type. The words were translated into “colloquial” speech.

Then came the time for active-type translation dictionaries and, finally, bilingual dictionaries of living languages. If early lexicography was created in order to understand the ancient speech of “dead” languages, then the emergence of dictionaries of “living” speech for humanity was a big step forward. It is noteworthy that the first dictionaries of interpretations appeared in countries that explained in writing using hieroglyphs.

The period of developed lexicography is the third and modern period of this section of linguistics. The advent of the third period of lexicography is associated with the rapid development of national literary languages.

At the present stage, lexicography can be divided into two subsections: practical lexicography and theoretical. The main difference is that the first section is designed for public use and performs more socially useful function. Theoretical lexicography studies, creates and develops macrostructures. At this level, vocabulary is selected, the dimensions of the dictionary are determined, etc.

Despite the fact that many official data consider the 20th century AD to be the period of developed lexicography, in fact the formation of science occurred much earlier, back in the late 18th and early 19th centuries AD.

It is known for certain that such a science as lexicography began to develop rapidly in the 19th century AD. Etymological, historical, reverse, frequency dictionaries, dictionaries of “related” languages ​​and adverbs, as well as dictionaries of the language of famous writers.

Today there is a great variety of different dictionaries, a large percentage of which have already been transferred to world wide web Internet. Online dictionaries are in great demand among users, but printed copies are still not losing ground. Just like during the dawn human civilization, and to this day, lexicography plays one of the most important roles in the world of linguistics.

What is a dictionary

A dictionary is a source (book) containing a list of words arranged in a certain order (usually alphabetically), with interpretations in the same language or with translation into another language.

Dictionaries perform many functions. General function of all dictionaries - recording, systematizing, accumulating and storing knowledge about the world and the national language, transferring this knowledge from generation to generation. Knowledge is stored and human memory, but it is limited, it cannot accumulate and store knowledge for centuries. Only recording accumulated knowledge can preserve it for posterity. In this sense, the dictionary turns out to be the most convenient form of communication of our knowledge.

The science of compiling dictionaries, as well as the work of collecting and systematizing words and phraseological units, is called lexicography, and scientists involved in compiling dictionaries are called lexicographers. However, in order to use them purposefully, a special culture is needed - a lexicographic culture.

Lexicography is one of the applied (having practical purpose and application) sciences included in modern linguistics. Its main content, as mentioned above, is the compilation of various language dictionaries. This is the science of dictionaries and how to make them most intelligently.

It is clear that you cannot compile dictionaries without understanding what a word is, how it lives and how it “works” in our speech. This is the task of lexicology. At the same time, the compilers of dictionaries, thinking deeply about words and their meanings, enrich the science of words with new observations and generalizations. Hence, lexicology and lexicography are closely related.

Thus, lexicography is a scientific technique and the art of compiling dictionaries, the practical application of lexicological science, which is extremely important both for the practice of reading foreign language literature and studying a foreign language, and for understanding one’s language in its present and past.

In order to more fully and correctly understand what dictionary compilers (lexicographers) do, you need to get acquainted with the results of their work, that is, dictionaries. Let's look at the different types of dictionaries used in the Russian language.

Today on the shelves of libraries and bookstores There are many different dictionaries created by the works of lexicographers. A person’s education is measured not only by the amount of information he has acquired, but also, no less, by the awareness of what exactly he does not know, by the ability to pose questions to himself and look for answers to them. Answers to many questions can be obtained using dictionaries.

Classification of dictionaries. General classification

Classification of dictionaries is carried out on a number of grounds:

a) linguistic dictionaries (lexicons) that give background information about language units in various aspects;

b) encyclopedic dictionaries containing information about concepts and phenomena designated linguistic units;

2. Based on the selection of vocabulary, they distinguish:

a) dictionaries-thesauruses, striving for the maximum representation of all words of the language and examples of their use in texts (for example, “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” in 17 volumes, frequency, translation dictionaries, etc.);

b) private dictionaries, in which there is a principle of selecting vocabulary according to various criteria (for example, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, onomastic, terminological, dialect, etc.);

3.according to the method of describing the unit:

a) general dictionaries containing a multidimensional description of a word (for example, explanatory dictionaries);

b) special dictionaries that reveal individual aspects of words or relationships between them (for example, etymological, word-formation, spelling, combinability dictionary, etc.);

4.by unit of lexicographic description:

a) dictionaries with a unit less than a word (for example, a dictionary of morphemes);

b) dictionaries with a unit equal to a word (for example, a spelling dictionary);

c) dictionaries with a unit greater than a word (for example, a dictionary of phraseological units);

5. In order of material arrangement:

A) alphabetical dictionaries;

b) ideographic dictionaries, information in which is arranged thematically;

c) associative dictionaries, in which information is arranged according to semantic associations;

) by the number of languages ​​in the dictionary:

a) monolingual;

b) bilingual;

c) multilingual dictionaries;

6. By purpose:

A) scientific dictionaries created for scientific purposes (e.g. historical, reverse, grammatical, frequency, etc.);

b) educational dictionaries of different genres: explanatory, dictionaries of foreign language terms, spelling, phraseological and other minimum dictionaries aimed at fulfilling the educational function;

c) translation dictionaries created for comparison and transition from one language system to another (English-Russian, Russian-Ingush, etc.);

d) reference dictionaries, aimed at the average native speaker, intended for seeking help, obtaining certain information about language units.

CONCLUSION

Dictionaries and reference books are constant companions of our lives, serving us to expand our knowledge and improve our language culture. They are deservedly called satellites of civilization. Dictionaries are truly an inexhaustible treasury of the national language, and they are also a tool of knowledge, an intellectual guide, and simply fascinating reading. The habit of using dictionaries is one of the most useful among those that a person receiving a serious education can acquire.

MAIN LITERATURE

V.D. Chernyak. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. Ed. " graduate School", Moscow 2003

V. I. Maksimova. Russian language and speech culture. Moscow 2003

A. N. Vasilyeva. Fundamentals of speech culture. Moscow 1990

Modern Russian literary language: textbook allowance / V.D. Starichenok [etc.]; edited by V.D. Old lady. – Minsk: Vysh. school, 2012. – 591 p.: ill. - ISBN 978-985-06-2138-2.

Related information.