Crimean War 1853-1856 also called Eastern War because of the so-called “Eastern Question”, which officially served as a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities. What is the “Eastern Question”, as it was understood in Europe in the middleXIXcentury? This is a set of claims to Turkish possessions, stretching back to the Middle Ages, from the time of the Crusades, to lands associated with the ancient shrines of Christianity. Initially, they meant only Palestine and Syria. After the capture of Constantinople and the Balkans by the Turks, the “Eastern Question” began to be called the plans of European powers to assert their dominion over all lands former Byzantium under the pretext of “liberation of Christians.”
In the middleXIXcentury Russian Emperor NicholasIdeliberately strained relations with Turkey. The pretext for this was the transfer by the Turkish government of jurisdiction over some Christian churches in Jerusalem, a Catholic mission under the patronage of France. For Nikolai this was a violation long tradition, according to which Türkiye recognized the Russian autocrat as the patron of all Christians on its territory, and the Orthodox confession enjoyed advantage there over other Christian denominations.
Nicholas's politicsIin relation to Turkey has changed several times. In 1827, the Russian squadron, together with the Anglo-French, defeated Turkish fleet in Navarino Bay under the pretext of protecting the rebel Greeks. This event served as a reason for Turkey to declare war on Russia (1828-1829), which once again turned out to be successful for Russian weapons. As a result, Greece gained independence and Serbia gained autonomy. But NikolaiIfeared the collapse of Turkey and in 1833 threatened war with the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali if he did not stop the movement of his army to Istanbul. Thanks to this NikolaiImanaged to conclude a profitable agreement with Turkey (in Uskär-Inkelessi) on the free navigation of Russian ships, including military ones, through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
However, by the 1850s, Nicholas had matured a plan to divide Turkey with other powers. First of all, he tried to interest Austrian Empire, in 1849 saved from collapse by the Russian army, which suppressed the revolution in Hungary, but ran into a blank wall. Then NikolaiIturned to England. At a meeting with the British Ambassador to St. Petersburg, Hamilton Seymour, in January 1853, the Tsar expressed a plan for the division of the Ottoman Empire. Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia came under Russian protectorate. Bulgaria stood out from the Balkan possessions of Turkey, which was also supposed to form a state under the protectorate of Russia. England received Egypt and the island of Crete. Constantinople turned to a neutral zone.
NikolayIhe was confident that his proposal would meet with the approval and participation of England, but he cruelly miscalculated. His assessment international situation on the eve of the Crimean War turned out to be wrong, and this was the fault of Russian diplomacy, which for decades had been sending reassuring reports to the Tsar about the constant respect that Russia enjoys in the West. Russian ambassadors in London (Baron F.I. Brunnov), Paris (Count N.D. Kiselyov), Vienna (Baron P.K. Meyendorff) and the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count K.V., who coordinated them from St. Petersburg. The Nesselrodes managed not to notice the rapprochement between England and France and the growing hostility of Austria towards Russia.
NikolayIhoped for rivalry between England and France. At that time, the tsar considered France his main opponent in the East, who incited Turkey to counteract. French ruler Louis Bonaparte, who in 1852 proclaimed himself emperor under the name of NapoleonIII, dreamed of settling scores with Russia, and not only because of his famous uncle, but also because he considered himself deeply offended by the Russian Tsar, who did not recognize his imperial title for a long time. England's interests in the Middle East brought it closer to France, as opposed to Russia's intentions.
Nevertheless, being confident in the benevolence or cowardice of the Western powers, NicholasIin the spring of 1853 he sent Prince A.S. as Ambassador Extraordinary to Constantinople. Menshikov with the task of negotiating “holy places” and privileges Orthodox Church in Turkey from a position of strength. Menshikov carried out the severance of relations with Turkey desired by the tsar, and in June of the same year NikolaiIbegan to send Russian troops into Moldova and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Turkey.
For their part, France and England, being confident in their strength, also looked for a reason for war. Both powers were not at all happy about the strengthening of Russia’s position in the East, and they had no intention of ceding influence to it in Turkey, which was falling apart at the seams. British diplomacy very skillfully showed the appearance that it did not want to aggravate relations with Russia. Meanwhile, behind the scenes, the British ambassador in Constantinople, Stretford-Ratcliffe, vigorously incited the Porte to be intransigent to Menshikov in the negotiations (which, however, was easy). When England finally dropped the mask, NikolaiII understood everything, but it was already too late.
The Tsar decided to occupy the Danube principalities to ensure his demands on Turkey, but, as in 1827, he did not yet declare war, leaving it to the Turks to do this (which happened in October 1853). However, unlike the times of the Battle of Navarino, the situation was now completely different. Russia found itself in international isolation. England and France immediately demanded that Russia withdraw its troops from the Danube principalities. Viennese courtyard I was increasingly inclined to give Russia an ultimatum about the same thing. Only Prussia remained neutral.
NikolayIbelatedly decided to intensify military action against Turkey. Having refused at the very beginning landing operation near Constantinople, he ordered troops to cross the Danube and transfer the war to the Ottoman Empire proper (to the territory of present-day Bulgaria). At the same time, the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed the Turkish fleet in the Sinop roadstead and burned the city. In response to this, England and France sent their fleets into the Black Sea. On March 27, 1854, they declared war on Russia.
The main reason for the Crimean War was the desire of the great European powers to assert themselves at the expense of the decrepit Ottoman Empire and prevent their rivals from doing so. In this regard, Russia, England and France were motivated by similar motives. England and France managed to agree on common interests, but Russia failed to attract any ally. The unsuccessful foreign policy combination for Russia, in which the war began and proceeded for it, was due to an inadequate assessment by its ruling circles of the international situation, as well as the forces and influence of Russia.
From the end of the 18th century. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire was clearly indicated. The Slavic and other non-Turkish peoples that were part of it were increasingly active in the struggle for independence. On the other hand, the rulers of some Muslim provinces (Albania, Egypt) began to disobey. European powers perceived these events differently and tried to influence them in different ways. The crisis of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to a tangled tangle of international contradictions called the Eastern Question.
Russia supported liberation struggle Slavic and other peoples. However, she most often took the side of the Sultan in his conflicts with local rulers. Russia did not forget its national interests, which were to achieve the security of its southern borders and a favorable regime for the Black Sea straits. At the end of the 18th century. military and merchant ships flying the Russian flag received the right of passage through the straits. But the issue of the passage of warships of other powers through the straits remained unresolved.
For Russia Eastern question complicated by its relations with Iran. The Shah's government did not want to come to terms with the loss of Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan. In 1826, Iranian troops invaded Russia. However, they were forced to stop at the Shusha fortress. Its garrison defended for 48 days until help arrived. The Shah's army was defeated in several battles. Russian troops took Erivan (Yerevan) and reached Lake Urmia. In February 1828, a peace treaty drawn up by L. S. Griboyedov was signed in the village of Turkmanchay. The Shah renounced his claims to Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan and ceded Northern Armenia to Russia. IN next year A. S. Griboyedov died at a diplomatic post in Tehran when the Russian mission was destroyed by a crowd of fanatics.
Meanwhile, relations between Russia and Turkey have worsened. In 1827, the governments of England, France and Russia opposed the atrocities of the Turkish army in Greece, which fought against the Ottoman yoke. An allied squadron was sent to the shores of Greece, which defeated the Turkish fleet in Navarim Bay. After this, disagreements arose between the allies, which the Sultan took advantage of. He refused to fulfill previously signed agreements with Russia. In 1828 it began Russian-Turkish war. Russian troops crossed the Danube, but stayed for a long time, besieging the fortresses of Varna, Shumla and Silnstriya. When they were finally taken, the Russian army quickly marched south, immediately captured Adrianople and reached the approaches to Constantinople. The Caucasian army took Turkish fortresses Kare and Erzurum. The Sultan urgently asked for peace. In September 1829, the Treaty of Adrianople was signed. The Danube Delta and coastal strip from Anapa to Poti, as well as the Akhaltsikhe region in Gruzni. Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia received autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. Greece became independent.
In 1832 Russian government assisted the Sultan in the fight against his vassal, the ruler of Egypt. The rebellious pasha almost took Constantinople. Only the landing of Russian troops on the shores of the Bosphorus stopped his troops. In 1833, an agreement was signed between Russia and Turkey, according to which the latter was to close the Bosporus and Dardanelles to warships of all non-Black Sea powers. Thus, Russia managed to achieve the most favorable regime for the Black Sea straits.
The Russian-Turkish treaty on the straits raised objections from England and France. They eventually succeeded in replacing it with a multilateral agreement. In 1840--1841 In London, representatives of England, France, Russia and Turkey developed a convention according to which the straits were declared closed to all foreign warships. The Russian fleet was locked in the Black Sea. Moreover, in case of war, Türkiye could open the straits to foreign military vessels at its discretion. The London Convention was a serious diplomatic defeat for Russia.
Dispute over Palestinian holy sites. In 1850, a conflict arose in Palestine between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy. That's what it was about. who will be the guardian of the especially revered temples in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Under pressure from French President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the Sultan decided the issue in favor of the Catholics. This caused discontent in St. Petersburg.
The dispute over Palestinian holy sites has once again intensified the Eastern Question. Now that the European revolutions of 1848-1849 had died down, Nicholas I decided to strengthen the position of his empire. He considered this a legitimate reward for the services he had rendered to his neighbors during the recent revolutions. First of all, he wanted to solve the problem of the Black Sea straits.
Taking advantage of the dispute over shrines, Nicholas I increased pressure on Turkey. The tsar's favorite L. S. Menshikov was sent to negotiate in Constantinople. His Serene Highness tried his hand at various fields (military, naval, diplomatic), but did not achieve anything special success. He was a man of average abilities, but with the help of secular manners, unexpected antics and wit, he knew how to create an exaggerated impression of himself.
At the court of the Sultan, Menshikov behaved very arrogantly. When appearing at meetings of the divan (council under the Sultan), he did not bow as required by etiquette. The Sultan ordered the door to be shortened so that it was impossible to pass through without bending down. Having encountered this obstacle, Menshikov turned his back and walked, crouching slightly on his knees. In the end, his mission only escalated the conflict.
In preparation for war, Nicholas I tried to enlist the support of England. He offered the British to take possession of Egypt and the island of Crete. The British government rejected such a deal. England's policy was to prevent dominance in the European continent any one power. The rise of Nicholas after the suppression of European revolutions and his broad plans worried London. As for Egypt, the British soon settled there without the help of the Russian Tsar.
Nicholas I was not embarrassed by the English government's refusal to form an alliance with him. He continued to put pressure on Turkey, demanding that the Sultan recognize him as the patron of all Orthodox Christians living in Turkey. To reinforce these demands, Russian troops were sent to Moldavia and Wallachia. In response, the English and French squadrons entered the Sea of Marmara. Encouraged by this, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853.
The beginning of the war. Military operations in the Danube principalities developed sluggishly. Main blow Türkiye planned to strike in Transcaucasia, counting on counter strikes from Shamil’s troops. In addition, it was planned to land troops on the Georgian coast. But this plan was thwarted decisive action Russian fleet.
The Turkish squadron, preparing to land troops, stood in Sinop Bay. It consisted of 14 ships, of which two were steam. It was commanded by Osman Pasha, the actual leadership was carried out by the English officer L. Slade.
On the morning of November 18, 1853, a Russian squadron of 8 sailing ships, despite the barrage of coastal batteries, slipped into the bay, anchored and began to shoot the Turkish fleet point-blank. Through the gaps, between the clouds of smoke, in the light of the burning Turkish ships, the stooped figure of the squadron commander, Vice Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov, flashed on the quarterdeck of the flagship. Three hours later, the Russian squadron sank almost all the Turkish ships and silenced coastal artillery. The wounded Osman Pasha was captured. Slade managed to escape on a steamer - the only unsinkable ship in the entire Turkish squadron. Some Russian ships were damaged, but all remained in service.
Soon Russian troops inflicted a series of defeats on the Turks in Transcaucasia. Shamil's warriors were stopped and thrown back into the mountains.
Saving Turkey from imminent defeat, in January 1854 the Anglo-French squadron entered the Black Sea. in response, the Russian government recalled its ambassadors from Paris and London. In March 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube. The Russian government rejected the ultimatum from England and France to abandon Moldavia and Wallachia. March 15(27) queen of england Victoria declared war on Russia. A day later, this was done by Louis Bonaparte, who by that time had managed to proclaim himself Emperor Napoleon III.
The Allies failed to create a pan-European coalition against Russia. Only the Sardinian kingdom joined them. But Austria, formally remaining neutral, concentrated its army on the border of the Danube principalities. Russian troops were forced to retreat first beyond the Danube and then beyond the Prut. Frustrated, Nikolai accused him of ingratitude Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph.
The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea and blocked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. But Russian sailors laid mines, and the allies did not dare to attack the bases of the Russian fleet.
At the same time, English ships entered the White Sea. Solovetsky Monastery refused to surrender to the enemy, and the British subjected this architectural monument to barbaric bombardment. The monks and pilgrims showed great courage, making a religious procession along the monastery walls to the whistling of cannonballs. The only battery tried to respond and even made a hole in one of the ships. At the end of the summer of 1854, English ships burned the ancient Russian city of Kola on the Murmansk coast.
In August of the same year, the Anglo-French squadron appeared in front of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. A small garrison under the command of Admiral V.S. Zavoiko provided heroic resistance, twice dropped enemy troops into the sea and forced the enemy to leave.
From the summer of 1854, the Anglo-French army began to concentrate on the Bulgarian coast. She was commanded by Marshal Saint-Arnaud, a participant in the French colonial war in Algeria, and Lord Raglan, a veteran Napoleonic wars. The Russian command heard rumors about that. that the allies were going to land in Crimea and take Sevastopol - But A. S. Menshikov, who commanded the Russian troops in Crimea, only laughed at these rumors.
Saint-Arnaud chose deserted beaches near Evpatoria as a landing site and acted very quickly. The 60,000-strong Allied army immediately moved to Sevastopol. On September 8, 1854, she met on the Alma River with Menshikov’s 35,000-strong army. The fire of the Anglo-French squadron allowed the Allies to outflank the Russian troops and continue moving towards Sevastopol.
The glory and bitterness of Sevastopol. Russian main base Black Sea Fleet had almost no land fortifications. The Allies could capture Sevastopol on the move, especially since Menshikov retreated to Bakhchisarai. But on the way to " Famous city“Doubts arose at the Allied headquarters about the success of the immediate assault. The Allies went around the Sevastopol Bay to secure a naval base in Balaklava and act against Sevastopol from the south. Admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov and V.I. Istomin, who took command of Sevastopol, very successfully used the unexpected respite. The garrison and population of the city were mobilized to build fortifications. Their scheme was developed by military engineers under the leadership of E.I. Totleben. Hastily made fortifications from earthworks, trenches, sandbags, baskets of earth (tours) were well adapted to the terrain and were fully adequate modern conditions battle. The British and French, who at first looked with contempt at the “homemade” fortifications of Sevastopol, later had to admit that they were more effective than many fortresses left over from past eras. The defenders of the city sank several ships at the entrance to the bay and blocked access to the enemy fleet.
On the morning of October 5, the Allies began bombing Sevastopol. On this day, Admiral Kornilov, driving around the bastions, noted deficiencies in the defense, gave instructions, and tried to determine the success of the return fire of the Russian batteries. He was mortally wounded on Malakhov Kurgan. “Defend Sevastopol...” were his last words.
The bombing caused heavy losses to the city's defenders. The allies did not escape losses either. Three of their powder magazines were blown up, and some of the ships involved in the shelling were severely damaged. The main thing is that the Allies failed to silence the Russian artillery. And therefore the assault, which was supposed to follow immediately after the bombing, did not take place.
After the Allies landed in Crimea, Menshikov considered the campaign lost. But the king demanded active actions. The commander-in-chief correctly calculated that the allies' most vulnerable point was Balaklava. The British stood here, and the Turks covered them from the rear. The battle of Balaklava on October 13, 1854 turned out in favor of the Russians. First, the Turks were thrown off several redoubts, and then an elite regiment came under the crossfire of Russian artillery English easy cavalry and was defeated. But Russian command did not use the success at Balaklava.
A few days later a new battle took place, near Inkerman. It began with successful attacks by Russian troops against the British. At one time, the fate of the battle hung in the balance. But the French came to the aid of the British in time, and in the Russian army, due to confusion, the reserves were not put into action. The newest small arms of the Allies caused great losses to the Russian troops. Russian bullets from smoothbore rifles did not reach the enemy. The battle of Inkerman ended in the defeat of the Russian troops. Meanwhile, success in this battle would force the allies to lift the siege from Sevastopol.
The war became protracted. The Allies increased their forces, regularly receiving ammunition and reinforcements by sea. For the Russian army, the problem of ammunition became more and more acute. The low-power Russian military industry could not cope with the increased tasks; oxen carts with gunpowder, cannonballs and lead were stuck on the washed-out southern roads. Russian artillerymen had to respond with one shot to three or four enemy fires. Since the threat from Austria remained, a significant part of the Russian army remained near the southwestern border. After Inkerman, the prospect of Russia's defeat in this war began to emerge.
Since the end of 1854, residents of St. Petersburg increasingly noticed at night the tall figure of the emperor walking alone along the Palace Embankment. One of the courtiers said that he could not imagine Nicholas I signing humiliating peace terms. The king’s health began to fail more and more often, but he did not pay attention to it. At the beginning of February 1855, he caught a cold and died on February 18. His last order was the removal of Menshikov from command and the appointment of Prince M.D. Gorchakov in his place. The eldest son of Nicholas I, Alexander II, ascended the throne.
The replacement of the commander-in-chief did not bring a turning point in the course of the war. True, the winter turned out to be difficult for the allies; near Sevastopol they were even forced to retreat a little. But in the spring the bombing of the city resumed. After one of them, especially long and fierce, at dawn on June 6, the allies moved to attack. Immediately the guns on the Russian bastions began to speak. The French, who attacked the Malakhov Kurgan, managed to reach it from the rear and capture several houses on the Korabelnaya side. The turning point in the course of the battle was brought about by a desperate attack by a company of sappers who happened to be nearby. Reinforcements arrived and the enemy was driven out from the outskirts of the city. The British, going to storm the Third Bastion, were stopped 400 m from the target.
At eight o'clock in the morning the allied command gave the all clear. The assault was repulsed with big losses from the attackers. Lord Raglan, who was in a depressed mood, died suddenly a few days later.
Many brave people defended Sevastopol, but among them the first place belongs to Admiral Nakhimov. All the threads of the city’s defense converged in the hands of Pavel Stepanovich. Tireless in his countless worries, simple and accessible, calmly calm in times of danger, he enjoyed the love of officers, sailors, soldiers, and city residents.
The ranks of the defenders of Sevastopol were thinning. Back in March 1855, Nakhimov’s closest assistant, Admiral V.I. Istomin, died. In the summer, as bombing became more frequent, losses increased sharply. Reinforcements did not have time to arrive. The 170,000-strong Allied army stood against the 75,000-strong Sevastopol garrison. Field Army Gorchakova behaved passively.
For some time now, Nakhimov’s associates began to guess that he had decided to perish along with Sevastopol. The admiral developed a dangerous habit of going out onto the parapet and observing enemy positions for a long time through a telescope. “Waiting for lead,” the soldiers said anxiously. In the evening of June 28, he arrived at Malakhov Kurgan and, as usual, went out onto the rampart. His golden epaulets glittered in the rays of the setting sun. “They're shooting pretty straight today,” he said as a bullet hit the bag next to him. Another bullet hit him in the head. A day later he died without regaining consciousness.
On August 4, Gorchakov, trying to divert enemy forces from Sevastopol, launched an offensive on the Black River, but it failed. 20 days after this battle, the Allies began a new bombardment of the city. The losses of the defenders amounted to 2-3 thousand people per day. On August 27, enemy troops launched an assault. Now they managed to capture Malakhov Kurgan. Gorchakov came to Korabelnaya Side. He saw mountains of corpses on the approaches to the Malakhov Kurgan, the French banner on its top and gave the order to retreat. Russian troops left the southern side of Sevastopol, crossing the bay on a pontoon bridge. The 349-day defense ended.
Parisian world. The fall of Sevastopol predetermined the outcome of the war. The Russian army was drained of blood, the treasury was empty, the economy was in disarray. Capture of Kars Caucasian theater military action did not improve the situation. At the end of 1855, Austria presented Russia with a number of stringent demands, threatening to enter the war. Alexander II invited the most prominent dignitaries to the meeting. Almost all of them agreed that “war inevitably leads us to bankruptcy.”
Soon a peace congress opened in Paris. Representatives from France, England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and Sardinia took part in its work. The main opponents of the Russian diplomats were the English and Austrian representatives, while the French behaved conciliatoryly. Contrary to expectations, the allies did not put forward obviously unacceptable demands. Memories of the grueling and bloody siege of Sevastopol were still too fresh. Then they said that behind the back of the Russian delegation stood the shadow of Nakhimov. Russian diplomats aimed to minimize territorial losses. This was generally successful. Under the Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1856, Russia lost only the islands in the Danube Delta and the adjacent part of southern Bessarabia. The most difficult clauses of the treaty for Russia concerned the so-called “neutralization” of the Black Sea: it was declared neutral, military vessels were prohibited from entering it, and naval arsenals could not be had on its shores. In practice, this meant that Russia could not maintain a navy in the Black Sea. This also applied to Turkey, but it, having a fleet on Mramorny and Aegean seas, in case of war, she could always transfer it to the Black Sea, and also let the Allied fleet go there. That. that neutralization did not concern Sea of Azov, did little to improve the situation in favor of Russia.
Russia suffered serious military defeat. The war mercilessly exposed Russia's backwardness in economic, social and military-technical terms. This fact was obvious, although Russia, without having from anyone military assistance, waged a war with a whole bloc of leading powers of the then world. After the Crimean War, the international authority of the Russian Empire as great power, weakened its influence in the Balkans and the Middle East. Subsequent events, however, showed that the Russian government was able to extract the right lessons from defeat in the Crimean War.
Returning to government activities Nicholas 1st Romanov, it is worth noting once again that this monarch, like his predecessors, of course, could not destroy Freemasonry as a given in Russia. But due to the fact that after the rebellion of 1925, the emperor forever ceased to trust the aristocracy (and influential Freemasons were represented primarily by the noble circle), the Freemasons ceased to have a significant influence on public administration. At the same time, the harsh reactionary (anti-revolutionary) measures taken by Nicholas 1st throughout his reign greatly limited (if not completely excluded) the possibility of revolutionary activity, including that of a semi-mystical nature.. Under Nicholas 1st this became, as they say, “more dear to oneself” - as an example, one can cite the case of the “Petrashevites”, who were severely punished only for free-thinking meetings. The Masons, of course, also behaved as they say “lower than water, lower than the grass.” Looking ahead, we note - only for the time being...
It is time, however, to move on to the description and assessment of those further developments in the Russian Empire, which were, one way or another, connected with anti-Russian and revolutionary activities...
Russian Emperor Nicholas 1st Romanov died in March 1855, before reaching the age of sixty, and without ending the Crimean campaign, which was unhappy for Russia. The most common version is that the cause of the king’s death was pneumonia, but there have also been suggestions of suicide. Some researchers cite failures in the Crimean War, which began at the end of the reign of Nicholas I, as the reason for possible suicide. However, the version of the suicide of Nicholas 1 seems completely implausible - the monarch’s religiosity was well known, and it is very difficult to believe that such a person could decide to commit such a grave (from the Christian point of view) sin.
But the Crimean campaign is worth special mention.
Formally, the Crimean War (1853-1856) was started by military opposition between the Russian and Turkish (Ottoman) empires. After a series of diplomatic conflicts that took place with the intervention of England and France, large-scale armed clashes occurred, marked by the Danube, Caucasian and Sinop campaigns. naval battle. In all ground operations Russia inflicted defeat on Turkey, and as a result of the Sinop naval operation carried out under the command of Admiral Nakhimov, Turkish squadron was completely destroyed. After which England and France entered the war on the side of the Turks, and in March 1984 war was officially declared on Russia.
Of course, there were special reasons for this. France was preoccupied with establishing its political influence, and besides, many hot French heads dreamed of revenge for the long-standing defeat in the Napoleonic wars.
However, the main initiative center of the coalition was Great Britain, without whose traditional support the Ottoman Empire would hardly have decided on another military conflict with Russia. British politicians argued that main goal Russia is the conquest of Constantinople and restoration Byzantine Empire, And anti-Russian sentiments in Europe were carefully planted, primarily from the island empire.
It was, of course, not only about Russia’s legendary desire to restore Byzantium - especially since Nicholas 1 never showed serious intentions for this. Much more UK like colonial empire. feared for Russian influence and presence as such in Central Asia, Persia, the Caucasus...
England traditionally and consistently harmed Russia, wherever and whenever possible, and supported any forces that were in any conflict with the Russian Empire. Not excluding, of course, Turkey...
By the beginning of the Crimean War, the head of British politics was Lord Palmerston (he would later become prime minister). His plans regarding Russia were more than categorical, including Palmerston’s declared intention to tear Poland, the Baltic states, Finland, Crimea and the entire Caucasus from Russia - no more and no less.
And here we will be forced to again turn to the topic raised in previous chapter. Lord Palmerston, known among other things as the ideologist of the global opium trade (under the control of England, of course), the inspirer of the so-called “Opium Wars,” was a Freemason!
And not just a Freemason, but a Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of England! Freemasonry researcher O. Platonov notes that “...Lord Palmerston, as the head of the Freemasons, was then subordinate to Garibaldi in Italy, Kossuth in Hungary, Mazzini, the founder of the Carbonari, in Italy, and even Napoleon III in France.” (O. Platonov, “ Secret history Freemasonry").
However, no matter how close a study of the political and economic realities of those years, one can quickly come to the conclusion - of course, it was not Lord Palmerston with his plans who was the main one driving force military confrontation between Russia and the European coalition. And Napoleon the 3rd, who involved his country in a war that it did not need at all, certainly could not be considered the main actor. Who then?
That's right - again a Masonic-oligarchic trace. Frankly speaking, open-minded historians have every reason to believe that the international, Masonic, banking (and Jewish, of course) Rothschild clan not only financed the Crimean War, using its influence on the economy European countries- but he also approved it and directed it.
The most daring researchers argue that it was not Russia’s successes in Crimea and the Caucasus that were the reason for this (although this factor was excellent foundation and justification) – and the prospect of a completely possible establishment Russian control over Judea, the Holy Land, through the suppression of Istanbul...
By the way, the already mentioned patented truth-seeker, a successful emigrant, theorist of all and every revolution, a fierce hater Russian monarchy in general and Nicholas 1st in particular, and at the same time, a very wealthy man A. Herzen, had very close (and, apparently, business) contacts with representatives of the Rothschild clan, which he quite definitely mentions in his book “The Past and thoughts." During the Crimean War, Herzen, as a publicist, also did not stand aside, and, as one would expect, he did not show himself to be a patriot.
But let's return to the Crimean War itself.
All historians and researchers note that, in general, Russia was not ready for war, since the technical lag of the army and navy was very significant, which led the campaign to a disastrous result. Allied troops, after a bloody siege, captured the cities of Sevastopol and Balaklava. However, the Allied forces also suffered significant losses, and a number major battles The Crimean War ended with the victory of Russian troops. Not without the intervention of Providence - a storm on the Black Sea sunk as many ships of the allied fleets as could have been destroyed in a lost naval battle.
However, unpreparedness for anything is a common characteristic of Russia; a number of major battles of the Crimean War ended in victory Russian troops, and the actual defeat of Russia by coalition troops did not bring territorial losses to the country, since the peace treaty of 1956 was concluded on conditions that were quite mild for Russia. Indeed, Russian influence in the Balkans was undermined, and Russia lost its Black Sea Fleet. But after a short time, these positions will be restored - already under the reign of Emperor Alexander 2nd.
Represents significant interest Crimean War casualty statistics:
Killed
24,731 Russia
10 240 France
10,000 Türkiye
2,755 England
Deceased
from wounds and illnesses
RUB 104,746
87 125 F
35 300 T
19,072 A
(Mernikov A. G., Spektor A. A. World history wars)
From the table above it is easy to see that the main instigator of the Crimean War, ( British Empire) suffered the least casualties. But this, in fact, is not surprising - England has always been distinguished by its ability to arrange its own interests at the expense of others. What is more interesting is that Turkey, which was the most interested party in the Crimean campaign, suffered even fewer losses than France, which, in essence, was only relatively interested in affairs in the Balkans and the Black Sea!
Indeed, the possibilities of diplomacy are great... Especially if this diplomacy is English (and Masonic - we note with caution).
No less dramatic for the public stakeholders (Russia and Turkey) were economic consequences Crimean War. The Russian Empire, in order to cover colossal military expenses, was forced to devalue the national currency by issuing paper money - which led to a two-fold depreciation of banknotes and a serious budget deficit that lasted for about 14 years.
The Turkish economy was completely ruined, since, in addition to natural reasons, the Ottoman Empire was unable to return large loan England, received to wage war...
For Russia, the Crimean War was already the ninth war with the participation of Turkey. In most Russian-Turkish wars, Russian troops defended (with great bloodshed) not so much their own geopolitical aspirations, but vital interests Christian countries and peoples under Turkish rule. Indeed, in narrow circles there was talk about the restoration of Byzantium - including such plans attributed to Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky, a favorite of Catherine the 2nd and one of the most prominent and successful statesmen, famous Russian history. Direct confirmation is hardly possible to find, but there is evidence that England and France provided support to the Ottoman Empire in almost every conflict with Russian Empire– as much as you like.
In 1856, the Crimean War ended for Russia, already under the reign of the new Tsar Alexander 2nd Romanov.
One of the first decrees of the Emperor of the Russian Empire, Alexander 2nd, who inherited the throne from his father, Nicholas 1st, which followed in honor of the coronation, which took place in the same year 1956, declared an amnesty for a number of state criminals convicted during the reign of Nicholas II .
First of all, the participants in the December rebellion of 1825 were completely amnestied, and along with them the “Petrashevites”. There were still more than sixty years left before the collapse of the Empire, and only twenty-five before the assassination of the Tsar Liberator himself by the revolutionaries...
The Crimean War, or, as it is called in the West, the Eastern War, was one of the most important and decisive events of the mid-19th century. At this time, the lands of the western Ottoman Empire found themselves at the center of a conflict between the European powers and Russia, with each of the warring parties wanting to expand their territories by annexing foreign lands.
The war of 1853-1856 was called the Crimean War, since the most important and intense fighting took place in Crimea, although military clashes went far beyond the peninsula and covered large areas of the Balkans, the Caucasus, as well as the Far East and Kamchatka. At the same time Tsarist Russia I had to fight not just with the Ottoman Empire, but with a coalition where Turkey was supported by Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Causes of the Crimean War
Each of the parties that took part in the military campaign had its own reasons and grievances that prompted them to enter into this conflict. But overall they had one thing in common sole purpose– take advantage of Turkey’s weakness and establish itself in the Balkans and the Middle East. It was these colonial interests that led to the outbreak of the Crimean War. But all countries took different paths to achieve this goal.
Russia wanted to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and its territories to be mutually beneficially divided between the claiming countries. Russia would like to see Bulgaria, Moldova, Serbia and Wallachia under its protectorate. And at the same time, she was not against the fact that the territories of Egypt and the island of Crete would go to Great Britain. It was also important for Russia to establish control over the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, connecting two seas: the Black and Mediterranean.
With the help of this war, Türkiye hoped to suppress the national liberation movement that was sweeping the Balkans, as well as to take away the very important Russian territories of Crimea and the Caucasus.
England and France did not want to strengthen the position of Russian tsarism in international arena, and sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire, since they saw it as a constant threat to Russia. Having weakened the enemy, the European powers wanted to separate the territories of Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia.
The French Emperor pursued his ambitious goals and dreamed of revenge in a new war with Russia. Thus, he wanted to take revenge on his enemy for his defeat in the military campaign of 1812.
If you carefully consider the mutual claims of the parties, then, in essence, the Crimean War was absolutely predatory and aggressive. It’s not for nothing that the poet Fyodor Tyutchev described it as a war of cretins with scoundrels.
Progress of hostilities
The start of the Crimean War was preceded by several important events. In particular, it was the issue of control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem, which was resolved in favor of the Catholics. This finally convinced Nicholas I of the need to begin military action against Turkey. Therefore, in June 1853, Russian troops invaded the territory of Moldova.
The response from the Turkish side was not long in coming: on October 12, 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.
First period of the Crimean War: October 1853 – April 1854
By the beginning of hostilities, there were about a million people in the Russian army. But as it turned out, its weapons were very outdated and significantly inferior to the equipment of Western European armies: smooth-bore guns versus rifled weapons, sailing fleet against ships with steam engines. But Russia hoped that it would have to fight with approximately equal strength Turkish army, as happened at the very beginning of the war, and could not imagine that it would be opposed by the forces of a united coalition of European countries.
During this period, fighting took place with with varying success. And the most important battle of the first Russian-Turkish period The war was the Battle of Sinop, which took place on November 18, 1853. The Russian flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov, heading to the Turkish coast, discovered large enemy naval forces in Sinop Bay. The commander decided to attack the Turkish fleet. The Russian squadron had an undeniable advantage - 76 cannons firing explosive shells. This is what decided the outcome of the 4-hour battle - the Turkish squadron was completely destroyed, and the commander Osman Pasha was captured.
Second period of the Crimean War: April 1854 – February 1856
Victory of the Russian army in Battle of Sinop greatly worried England and France. And in March 1854, these powers, together with Turkey, formed a coalition to fight a common enemy - the Russian Empire. Now a powerful military force, several times larger than its army.
With the beginning of the second stage of the Crimean campaign, the territory of military operations expanded significantly and covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic, Far East and Kamchatka. But the main task of the coalition was intervention in Crimea and the capture of Sevastopol.
In the fall of 1854, a combined 60,000-strong corps of coalition forces landed in the Crimea near Evpatoria. And the very first battle on the Alma River Russian army lost, so it was forced to retreat to Bakhchisarai. The garrison of Sevastopol began to prepare for the defense and defense of the city. The valiant defenders were led by the famous admirals Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin. Sevastopol was turned into an impregnable fortress, which was defended by 8 bastions on land, and the entrance to the bay was blocked with the help of sunken ships.
lasted 349 days heroic defense Sevastopol, and only in September 1855 the enemy captured the Malakhov Kurgan and occupied the entire southern part of the city. The Russian garrison moved to northern part, but Sevastopol never capitulated.
Results of the Crimean War
The military actions of 1855 weakened both the allied coalition and Russia. Therefore, there could no longer be any talk of continuing the war. And in March 1856, the opponents agreed to sign a peace treaty.
According to the Treaty of Paris, Russia, like the Ottoman Empire, was prohibited from having a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea, which meant that the country's southern borders were in danger.
As a result of the war, Russia lost a small part of its territories in Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube, but lost its influence in the Balkans.
Foreign policy Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as domestic policy.
During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought the revolution not only within the country, but also outside its borders. In 1826 - 1828 As a result of the Russian-Iranian war, Armenia was annexed to the territory of the country. Nicholas 1 condemned the revolutionary processes in Europe. In 1849, he sent Paskevich's army to suppress the Hungarian revolution. In 1853, Russia entered the Crimean War. But, as a result of the Peace of Paris, concluded in 1856, the country lost the right to have a fleet and fortresses on the Black Sea, and lost Southern Moldova. The failure undermined the king's health. Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855 in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.
Main directions of foreign policy
The policy of Nicholas I in Europe was aimed at:
preservation of previously acquired territories
strengthening new borders
subordination of Poland, the Baltic states and Finland to the interests of the Russian state
The fight against the revolutionary danger was caused not only by ideological considerations, but also by the need to ensure European stability and preserve the integrity of the western border of the empire.
If in force historical facts(primarily the protracted Napoleonic wars) European direction in the first quarter of the 19th century. was the main one for Russia, then during the reign of Nicholas I the eastern issue took center stage - relations with the Ottoman Empire and the solution of international problems associated with its increasing weakening. For Russia, the extremely important tasks were:
strengthening its positions on the Black Sea coast
border protection in the south of the country
preventing foreign military vessels from entering the Black Sea
ensuring the most favorable regime of the straits - the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles
Economically and strategically, the Black Sea acquired everything for Russia higher value. In Russia’s relations with the Ottoman Empire, a large role was played by the fact that the latter included many Christian and Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, who saw in Russia their only protector and savior, and the Russian public deeply empathized with them as their fellow brothers.
Another area of focus was relations with Iran, in which the problem of Transcaucasia occupied a special place.
In the 2nd quarter of the 19th century. Central Asian and Far Eastern directions acquired greater importance than in the 1st quarter. The study of Central Asia began, in which Great Britain also showed interest and slowed down Russia’s advance into this region.
In the first decades of his reign, Nicholas I was a far-sighted and prudent politician who knew how to take a decisive and firm position on fundamental issues. However, in the last years of his reign (after the suppression of the revolution of 1848-1849), Nicholas increasingly lost his understanding of political realities. He unreasonably believed that Austria and England fully supported his foreign policy course, and made decisions that were not consistent with the general international situation.
During the reign of Nicholas I, Karl Vasilyevich Nesselrode continued to head the Foreign Ministry, receiving the rank of vice-chancellor (from 1845 - chancellor) and the title of count. As during the reign of Alexander I, he considered the clear goal of Russian foreign policy to be decisive opposition to the European revolutionary movement. To do this, he tried to revive the Holy Alliance, and also actively contributed to Russian-Austrian and Russian-Prussian rapprochement. In 1849 he supported intervention against the Hungarian revolution. On the eve of the Crimean War, Nesselrode was unable to correctly assess foreign policy positions European countries. As a result, Russia found itself in international isolation. Despite the effectiveness of the Russian diplomatic service, in the era of Nicholas it was characterized by serious miscalculations and unforgivable mistakes, which resulted in the Crimean War, which was poorly prepared in diplomatic and military relations.
Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829)
Russia declared war, the army under the command of P.Kh. Vintgenstein crossed the border river Prut. Iasi, Bucharest, the fortresses of Shumla, Silistria were occupied. On August 8 (20), the Turks surrendered Andrianople. Trying to prevent Russian troops from taking the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople, Sultan Mahmud II authorized the start of bilateral peace negotiations.
Treaty of Adrianople (1829)
Russia acquired: the Danube Delta, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Anapa to Poti, the fortresses of Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki, Eastern Armenia. The Porte renounced its claims to the lands in Transcaucasia that had previously ceded to Russia. Was actually completed long process the annexation of most of the territory of Transcaucasia to Russia and the formation of a border in this region.
From this moment on, the eastern question continued to occupy an important, if not central, place in Russian foreign policy. According to the Unkar-Isklesi Treaty of 1833, it was decided important issue. In a secret article of this treaty, the Sultan took upon himself the obligation, at the request of Russia, to close the straits to the passage of warships of European powers. In addition, all previous agreements with the Ottoman Empire were confirmed.
Crimean War 1853-1856
Cause of the Crimean War there were clashes of interests between Russia, England, France and Austria in the Middle East and the Balkans. Leading European countries sought to divide Turkish possessions in order to expand spheres of influence and markets. Türkiye sought to take revenge for previous defeats in wars with Russia.
One of the main reasons for the emergence of military confrontation was the problem of revising legal regime passage by the Russian fleet of the Mediterranean straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles, recorded in the London Convention of 1840-1841.
The reason for the outbreak of war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy over the ownership of the “Palestinian shrines” (Bethlehem Church and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher), located on the territory of the Ottoman Empire.
In 1851 Turkish Sultan, incited by France, ordered the keys to the Bethlehem Church to be taken away from Orthodox priests and handed over to Catholics. In 1853, Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum with initially impossible demands, which ruled out a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Russia, having severed diplomatic relations with Turkey, occupied the Danube principalities, and as a result, Türkiye declared war on October 4, 1853.
First period of the war: October 1853 - March 1854. The Black Sea squadron under the command of Admiral Nakhimov in November 1853 completely destroyed the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, capturing the commander-in-chief. In the ground operation, the Russian army achieved significant victories in December 1853 - having crossed the Danube and pushing back Turkish troops, it besieged Silistria under the command of General I.F. Paskevich. In the Caucasus, Russian troops won a major victory near Bashkadılklar, thwarting the Turkish plans to seize Transcaucasia.
England and France, fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, declared war on Russia in March 1854. From March to August 1854, they launched attacks from the sea against Russian ports on the Addan Islands, Odessa, the Solovetsky Monastery, and Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka. Attempts at a naval blockade were unsuccessful.
In September 1854, a 60,000-strong landing force was landed on the Crimean Peninsula with the goal of capturing the main base of the Black Sea Fleet - Sevastopol.
The first battle on the Alma River in September 1854 ended in failure for the Russian troops.
On September 13, 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months. By order of Nakhimov, the Russian sailing fleet, which could not resist the enemy’s steam ships, was scuttled at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay.
The defense was led by admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, who died heroically during the assaults. The defenders of Sevastopol were L.N. Tolstoy and surgeon N.I. Pirogov.
Russian troops suffered a number of failures in the battles of Inkerman in Yevpatoria and on the Black River. On August 27, after a 22-day bombardment, an assault on Sevastopol was launched, after which Russian troops were forced to leave the city.
On March 18, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed between Russia, Turkey, France, England, Austria, Prussia and Sardinia. Russia lost its bases and part of its fleet, the Black Sea was declared neutral. Russia lost its influence in the Balkans, and its military power in the Black Sea basin was undermined.
The basis of this defeat was the political miscalculation of Nicholas I, who pushed economically backward, feudal-serf Russia into conflict with strong European powers. This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out a number of radical reforms.
