Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had its own calculations in this military conflict.

For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30s and 40s years XIX V. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. Through it, the straits were closed to foreign warships, and Russia received the right to freely transport its warships through them. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. Based on a series of agreements with European states, the straits came under international control for the first time and were closed to all navies. As a result, the Russian fleet found itself locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its position in the Middle East and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire wanted to return territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars late XVIII- first half of the 19th century V.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as great power, deprive it of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.

The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Saints.
places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy escalated into a confrontation between the two European countries. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent between Russia and Emperor Nicholas I personally. A special representative of the Tsar, Prince A. S. Mesnshikov, was sent to Constantinople. He was instructed to achieve privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the rights of patronage to Orthodox subjects of Turkey. The failure of A.S. Menshikov’s mission was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated conflict situation. Thus, it would seem private, but for that time important, given religious feelings people, the dispute over the Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the pan-European war.

Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, relying on the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered more than 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its weapons (smoothbore guns) were inferior to the rifled weapons of Western European armies. The artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There was no established communication. This did not make it possible to provide a theater of military operations sufficient quantity ammunition and food. human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight the Turkish one, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.

Progress of hostilities

To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of “armed neutrality.” Russia found itself in complete political isolation.

The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages

First: the Russian-Turkish campaign itself was carried out with with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. Second (April 1854 - February 1856): Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.

The main event of the first stage is Battle of Sinop(November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea and attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. British ships entered the White Sea and bombarded Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of Crimea and Sevastopol, the Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began landing an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria area. Battle of the Alma River in September

1854 Russian troops lost. By order of Commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, led active preparation to defense. It was headed by V. A. Kornilov and P. S. Nakhimov.

In October 1854, the Allies besieged Sevastopol. The fortress garrison showed unprecedented heroism. Particularly famous were admirals V.L. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov and V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, artillery lieutenant general S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.

The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inksrman (November 1854), the attack on Yevpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the residents of Sevastopol. In August 1855, the final assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, continuation of the defense was difficult. Most Sevastopol was occupied by allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.

On Caucasian Theater military operations developed more successfully for Russia. Türkiye invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kars fell.

The extreme exhaustion of Allied forces in the Crimea and Russian successes in the Caucasus led to a cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Parisian world

At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. She was only torn away southern part Bessarabia. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called “neutralization” of the Black Sea. Russia was banned from having fruit juice on the Black Sea naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. Russia's role in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on internal position Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat brought a sad conclusion to Nicholas' rule, shook up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.

In 1854, diplomatic negotiations between the warring parties were held in Vienna through the mediation of Austria. England and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban on Russia keeping a naval fleet on the Black Sea, Russia’s renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects, as well as “freedom of navigation” on the Danube (that is, depriving Russia of access to its mouths).

On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with England and France. On December 28, 1854 (January 9, 1855), a conference of the ambassadors of England, France, Austria and Russia opened, but the negotiations did not produce results and were interrupted in April 1855.

On January 14 (26), 1855, the Sardinian kingdom joined the allies and concluded an agreement with France, after which 15 thousand Piedmontese soldiers went to Sevastopol. According to Palmerston's plan, Sardinia was to receive Venice and Lombardy, taken from Austria, for participation in the coalition. After the war, France concluded an agreement with Sardinia, in which it officially assumed the corresponding obligations (which, however, were never fulfilled).

On February 18 (March 2), 1855, Russian Emperor Nicholas I died suddenly. Russian throne inherited by his son, Alexander II. After the fall of Sevastopol, differences arose in the coalition. Palmerston wanted to continue the war, Napoleon III did not. The French emperor began secret (separate) negotiations with Russia. Meanwhile, Austria announced its readiness to join the allies. In mid-December, she presented Russia with an ultimatum:

Replacement of the Russian protectorate over Wallachia and Serbia with the protectorate of all great powers;
establishing freedom of navigation at the mouths of the Danube;
preventing the passage of anyone's squadrons through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus into the Black Sea, prohibiting Russia and Turkey from keeping a navy in the Black Sea and having arsenals and military fortifications on the shores of this sea;
Russia's refusal to patronize the Sultan's Orthodox subjects;
cession by Russia in favor of Moldova of the section of Bessarabia adjacent to the Danube.


A few days later, Alexander II received a letter from Frederick William IV, who urged Russian Emperor accept Austrian conditions, hinting that otherwise Prussia might join the anti-Russian coalition. Thus, Russia found itself in complete diplomatic isolation, which, given the depletion of resources and the defeats inflicted by the allies, put it in extreme difficult situation.

On the evening of December 20, 1855 (January 1, 1856), a meeting convened by him took place in the tsar’s office. It was decided to invite Austria to omit the 5th point. Austria rejected this proposal. Then Alexander II convened a secondary meeting on January 15 (27), 1855. The meeting unanimously decided to accept the ultimatum as preconditions peace.

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military vessels in peacetime), with a ban on Russia and Ottoman Empire have military fleets and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldova.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands.

During the war, the participants in the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but they managed to prevent Russia from strengthening in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet for 15 years.

Consequences of the war

The war led to disorder financial system Russian Empire (Russia spent 800 million rubles on the war, Britain - 76 million pounds): to finance military expenses, the government had to resort to printing unsecured notes of credit, which led to a decrease in their silver coverage from 45% in 1853 to 19% in 1858 , that is, in fact, to more than a twofold depreciation of the ruble.
Russia was able to achieve a deficit-free state budget again only in 1870, that is, 14 years after the end of the war. It was possible to establish a stable exchange rate of the ruble to gold and restore its international conversion in 1897, during monetary reform Witte.
The war became the impetus for economic reforms and, subsequently, to the abolition of serfdom.
The experience of the Crimean War partially formed the basis for the military reforms of the 1860s and 1870s in Russia (replacing the outdated 25-year military service, etc.).

In 1871, Russia achieved the lifting of the ban on keeping the navy in the Black Sea under the London Convention. In 1878, Russia was able to return the lost territories under the Berlin Treaty, signed as part of Berlin Congress, held following the results Russian-Turkish War 1877—1878.

The government of the Russian Empire begins to reconsider its policy in the field railway construction, previously manifested in the repeated blocking of private construction projects railways, including Kremenchug, Kharkov and Odessa and defending the unprofitability and unnecessaryness of the construction of railways in south direction from Moscow. In September 1854, an order was issued to begin research on the line Moscow - Kharkov - Kremenchug - Elizavetgrad - Olviopol - Odessa. In October 1854, an order was received to begin research on the Kharkov-Feodosia line, in February 1855 - on a branch from the Kharkov-Feodosia line to Donbass, in June 1855 - on the Genichesk-Simferopol-Bakhchisarai-Sevastopol line. On January 26, 1857, the Highest Decree was issued on the creation of the first railway network.

...railroads, the need for which many had doubted even ten years ago, are now recognized by all classes as a necessity for the Empire and have become a popular need, a common, urgent desire. In this deep conviction, we, following the first cessation of hostilities, ordered means to better satisfy this urgent need... turn to private industry, both domestic and foreign... in order to take advantage of the significant experience acquired in the construction of many thousands of miles of railways in Western Europe .

Britannia

Military failures caused the resignation of the British government of Aberdeen, who was replaced in his post by Palmerston. The depravity of the official system of selling officer ranks for money was revealed, which was preserved in british army since medieval times.

Ottoman Empire

During the Eastern Campaign, the Ottoman Empire made 7 million pounds sterling in England. In 1858, the Sultan's treasury was declared bankrupt.

In February 1856, Sultan Abdulmecid I was forced to issue a Khatt-i-Sherif (decree), which proclaimed freedom of religion and equality of subjects of the empire regardless of nationality.

Crimean War gave impetus to the development of the armed forces, military and naval art of states. In many countries, a transition began from smooth-bore weapons to rifled weapons, from a sailing wooden fleet to a steam-powered armored one, and positional forms of warfare arose.

IN ground forces The role of small arms and, accordingly, the fire preparation of an attack increased, a new battle formation appeared - a rifle chain, which was also the result of a sharply increased capabilities of small arms. Over time, it completely replaced the columns and loose construction.

Sea barrage mines were invented and used for the first time.
The beginning of the use of the telegraph for military purposes was laid.
Florence Nightingale laid the foundations for modern sanitation and care for the wounded in hospitals - in less than six months after her arrival in Turkey, mortality in hospitals decreased from 42 to 2.2%.
For the first time in the history of wars, sisters of mercy were involved in caring for the wounded.
Nikolai Pirogov was the first in Russian field medicine to use a plaster cast, which accelerated the healing process of fractures and saved the wounded from ugly curvature of the limbs.

One of the earliest manifestations documented information war, when immediately after the Battle of Sinop, English newspapers wrote in reports on the battle that the Russians were finishing off the wounded Turks floating in the sea.
On March 1, 1854, a new asteroid was discovered by the German astronomer Robert Luther at the Dusseldorf Observatory, Germany. This asteroid was named (28) Bellona in honor of Bellona, ​​the ancient Roman goddess of war, part of the retinue of Mars. The name was proposed by the German astronomer Johann Encke and symbolized the beginning of the Crimean War.
On March 31, 1856, the German astronomer Hermann Goldschmidt discovered an asteroid named (40) Harmony. The name was chosen to commemorate the end of the Crimean War.
For the first time, photography was widely used to cover the progress of the war. In particular, a collection of photographs taken by Roger Fenton and numbering 363 images was purchased by the Library of Congress.
The practice of constant weather forecasting emerged, first in Europe and then throughout the world. The storm of November 14, 1854, which caused heavy losses the Allied fleet, as well as the fact that these losses could have been prevented, forced the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, to personally instruct his country's leading astronomer, W. Le Verrier, to create an effective weather forecast service. Already on February 19, 1855, just three months after the storm in Balaclava, the first forecast map was created, the prototype of those we see in weather news, and in 1856 there were already 13 weather stations operating in France.
Cigarettes were invented: the habit of wrapping tobacco crumbs in old newspapers was copied by the English and French troops in Crimea with Turkish comrades.
The young author Leo Tolstoy gains all-Russian fame with his publications in the press " Sevastopol stories"from the scene of events. Here he created a song criticizing the actions of the command in the battle on Black River.

According to estimates of military losses, the total number of those killed in battle, as well as those who died from wounds and diseases in the Allied army was 160-170 thousand people, in the Russian army - 100-110 thousand people. Other estimates put the total number of war dead, including non-combat losses, amounted to approximately 250 thousand from Russia and from the allies

In Great Britain, the Crimean Medal was established to reward distinguished soldiers, and the Royal Medal was established to reward those who distinguished themselves in the Baltic. navy And Marine Corps— Baltic medal. In 1856, to reward those who distinguished themselves during the Crimean War, the Victoria Cross medal was established, which is still the highest military award UK.

In the Russian Empire, on November 26, 1856, Emperor Alexander II established the medal “In Memory of the War of 1853-1856,” as well as the medal “For the Defense of Sevastopol,” and ordered the Mint to produce 100,000 copies of the medal.
On August 26, 1856, Alexander II granted the population of Taurida a “Certificate of Gratitude.”

The mid-19th century for the Russian Empire was marked by intense diplomatic struggle for the Black Sea straits. Attempts to resolve the issue diplomatically failed and even led to conflict. In 1853, the Russian Empire went to war against the Ottoman Empire for dominance in the Black Sea straits. 1853-1856, in short, was a clash of interests of European states in the Middle East and the Balkans. Leading European states formed an anti-Russian coalition, which included Türkiye, Sardinia and Great Britain. The Crimean War of 1853-1856 covered large territories and stretched for many kilometers. Active fighting were carried out in several directions at once. The Russian Empire was forced to fight not only directly in the Crimea, but also in the Balkans, the Caucasus and Far East. The clashes on the seas - the Black, White and Baltic - were also significant.

Causes of the conflict

Historians define the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 in different ways. So, British scientists main reason The war is considered an unprecedented increase in the aggressiveness of Nicholas Russia, which the emperor led to in the Middle East and the Balkans. Turkish historians identify the main cause of the war as Russia’s desire to establish its dominance over Black Sea straits, which would make the Black Sea an internal body of water for the empire. The dominant causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are illuminated Russian historiography, which claims that the clash was prompted by Russia's desire to improve its shaky position in the international arena. According to most historians, a whole complex of cause-and-effect events led to the war, and each of the participating countries had its own prerequisites for the war. Therefore, until now, scientists in the current conflict of interests have not come to a single definition of the cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Conflict of interests

Having examined the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, let us move on to the beginning of hostilities. The reason for this was the conflict between Orthodox and Catholics over control of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which was under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire. Russia's ultimatum to hand over the keys to the temple caused a protest from the Ottomans, actively supported by France and Great Britain. Russia, not accepting the failure of its plans in the Middle East, decided to switch to the Balkans and introduced its units into the Danube principalities.

Progress of the Crimean War 1853-1856.

It would be advisable to divide the conflict into two periods. The first stage (November 1953 - April 1854) was the Russian-Turkish conflict itself, during which Russia’s hopes for support from Great Britain and Austria were not justified. Two fronts were formed - in Transcaucasia and Crimea. The only significant victory of Russia was Sinopskoe naval battle in November 1853, during which the Turkish Black Sea fleet was defeated.

and the battle of Inkerman

The second period lasted until February 1856 and was marked by the struggle of the alliance of European states with Turkey. The landing of Allied troops in Crimea forced Russian troops move deeper into the peninsula. The only impregnable citadel was Sevastopol. In the fall of 1854, the brave defense of Sevastopol began. Incompetent command Russian army rather hindered than helped the defenders of the city. For 11 months, sailors under the leadership of Nakhimov P., Istomin V., Kornilov V. repelled enemy attacks. And only after it became impractical to hold the city, the defenders, leaving, blew up weapons warehouses and burned everything that could burn, thereby thwarting the plans of the allied forces to take possession of the naval base.

Russian troops attempted to divert the attention of the allies from Sevastopol. But they all turned out to be unsuccessful. Clash near Inkerman, offensive in the Evpatoria region, the battle on the Black River did not bring glory to the Russian army, but showed its backwardness, outdated weapons and inability to properly conduct military operations. All these actions brought Russia's defeat in the war closer. But it is worth noting that allied forces got it. By the end of 1855, the forces of England and France were exhausted, and there was no point in transferring new forces to the Crimea.

Caucasian and Balkan fronts

The Crimean War of 1853-1856, which we have tried to briefly describe, covered both Caucasian Front, events on which developed somewhat differently. The situation there was more favorable for Russia. Attempts to invade Transcaucasia were unsuccessful. And Russian troops were even able to advance deep into the Ottoman Empire and capture Turkish fortresses Bayazet in 1854 and Qara in 1855. Allied actions in the Baltic and White Seas and in the Far East did not have significant strategic success. And they rather depleted the military forces of both the allies and the Russian Empire. Therefore, the end of 1855 was marked by the virtual cessation of hostilities on all fronts. The warring parties sat down at the negotiating table to sum up the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Completion and results

Negotiations between Russia and the allies in Paris ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty. Under pressure internal problems, hostility Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Russia was forced to accept the demands of the allies to neutralize the Black Sea. The ban on establishing naval bases and fleets deprived Russia of all the achievements of previous wars with Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands and was forced to give control of the Danube principalities to the allies. Bessarabia was transferred to the Ottoman Empire.

In general, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were ambiguous. The conflict pushed European world to the total rearmament of their armies. And this meant that the production of new weapons was intensifying and the strategy and tactics of combat operations were radically changing.

Having spent millions of pounds sterling on the Crimean War, it led the country's budget to complete bankruptcy. Debts to England forced the Turkish Sultan to agree to freedom of religious worship and equality of all, regardless of nationality. Great Britain dismissed the Aberdeen cabinet and formed a new one led by Palmerston, which abolished the sale of officer ranks.

The results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 forced Russia to turn to reforms. Otherwise she could slide into the abyss social problems, which, in turn, would lead to popular revolt, the result of which no one would have predicted. The experience of the war was used to carry out military reform.

The Crimean War (1853-1856), the defense of Sevastopol and other events of this conflict left significant trace in history, literature and painting. Writers, poets and artists in their works tried to reflect all the heroism of the soldiers who defended the Sevastopol citadel, and the great significance of the war for the Russian Empire.

Crimean War 1853-1856 (briefly)

Causes of the Crimean War

The reason was found quite easily. In 1853, another dispute arose between Catholics and Orthodox Christians over the right to repair the dome of the Bethlehem Church on the site of the Nativity of Christ. The decision had to be made by the Sultan, who, at the instigation of France, decided the issue in favor of the Catholics. The demands of Prince A.S. Menshikov, Ambassador Extraordinary of Russia about the right of the Russian Emperor to patronize the Orthodox subjects of the Turkish Sultan were rejected, after which Russian troops occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, and the Turks responded to the protest by refusing to leave these principalities, citing their actions as a protectorate over them according to the Treaty of Adrianople.

After some political manipulations on the part of European states in alliance with Turkey, the latter declared war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853.

At the first stage, while Russia was dealing with only the Ottoman Empire, it was victorious: in the Caucasus (battle of Bashkadiklyar), Turkish troops suffered a crushing defeat, and the destruction of 14 ships of the Turkish fleet near Sinop became one of the brightest victories of the Russian fleet.

Entry of England and France into the Crimean War

And then “Christian” France and England intervened, declaring war on Russia on March 15 (27), 1854 and capturing Evpatoria in early September. The Parisian Cardinal Cibourg described their seemingly impossible alliance as follows: “The war into which France entered into with Russia is not a political war, but a holy war, ... a religious one. ... the need to drive away the heresy of Photius... This is the avowed purpose of this new crusade...“Russia could not resist the united forces of such powers. Played a role like internal contradictions, and insufficient technical equipment of the army. In addition, the Crimean War moved to other directions. Turkey's allies in the North Caucasus - Shamil's troops - were stabbed in the back, Kokand opposed the Russians in Central Asia(however, they were unlucky here - the battle for Fort Perovsky, where there were 10 enemies or more for every Russian, led to the defeat of the Kokand troops).

There were also battles in the Baltic Sea - on the Alan Islands and the Finnish coast, and in the White Sea - for Kola, the Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk, there was an attempt to take Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. However, all these battles were won by the Russians, which forced England and France to see Russia as a more serious opponent and take the most decisive actions.

Defense of Sevastopol in 1854-1855

The outcome of the war was decided by the defeat of Russian troops in the defense of Sevastopol, the siege of which by coalition forces lasted almost a year (349 days). During this time, too many unfavorable events happened for Russia: the talented military leaders Kornilov, Istomin, Totleben, Nakhimov died, and on February 18 (March 2), 1855, the All-Russian Emperor, the Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke Finnish Nicholas 1. On August 27 (September 8), 1855, Malakhov Kurgan was taken, the defense of Sevastopol became meaningless, and the next day the Russians left the city.

Defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856

After the capture of Kinburn by the French in October and the note from Austria, which had hitherto observed armed neutrality together with Prussia, further waging the war by a weakened Russia made no sense.

On March 18 (30), 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which imposed on Russia the will of the European states and Turkey, which prohibited the Russian state from having a military fleet, took away the Black Sea bases, prohibited the strengthening of the Åland Islands, abolished the protectorate over Serbia, Wallachia and Moldova, and forced an exchange Kars to Sevastopol and Balaklava, and stipulated the transfer of Southern Bessarabia to the Moldavian Principality (pushing back the Russian borders along the Danube). Russia was exhausted by the Crimean War, its economy was in great disarray.

CRIMEAN WAR

1853-1856

Plan

1. Prerequisites for the war

2. Progress of military operations

3. Actions in Crimea and defense of Sevastopol

4.Military actions on other fronts

5.Diplomatic efforts

6. Results of the war

Crimean (Eastern) War 1853-56 was conducted between Russian Empire and the coalition of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), France, Great Britain and Sardinia for dominance in the Middle East, the Black Sea basin, and the Caucasus. Allied powers they no longer wanted to see Russia on the world political stage. New war served as an excellent opportunity to achieve this goal. Initially, England and France planned to wear out Russia in the fight against Turkey, and then, under the pretext of protecting the latter, they hoped to attack Russia. In accordance with this plan, it was planned to launch military operations on several fronts, separated from one another (on the Black and Baltic Seas, in the Caucasus, where they placed special hope on the mountain population and on the spiritual leader of the Muslims of Chechnya and Dagestan-Shamil).

BACKGROUND OF THE WAR

The reason for the conflict was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy due to the possession of Christian shrines in Palestine (in particular in the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem). The prelude was the conflict between Nicholas I and the French Emperor Napoleon III. The Russian emperor considered his French “colleague” illegal, because. the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French throne Congress of Vienna(pan-European conference, during which the borders of European states were determined after Napoleonic wars). Napoleon III, aware of the fragility of his power, wanted to divert the attention of the people with a war against Russia that was popular at that time (revenge for the War of 1812) and at the same time satisfy his irritation against Nicholas I. Having come to power with the support of the Catholic Church, Napoleon also sought to repay ally, defending the interests of the Vatican in the international arena, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and directly with Russia. (The French referred to a treaty with the Ottoman Empire regarding the right to control Christian holy sites in Palestine (in 19th century territory Ottoman Empire), and Russia - on the decree of the Sultan, which restored the rights of the Orthodox Church in Palestine and gave Russia the right to protect the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire). France demanded that the keys to the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem be given to the Catholic clergy, and Russia demanded that they remain from the Orthodox community. Türkiye, which is mid-19th century was in a state of decline, did not have the opportunity to refuse either side, and promised to fulfill the demands of both Russia and France. When the typical Turkish diplomatic ploy was exposed, France brought a 90-gun steam battleship under the walls of Istanbul. As a result of this, the keys to the Church of the Nativity were transferred to France (i.e. the Catholic Church). In response, Russia began mobilizing the army on the border with Moldavia and Wallachia.

In February 1853, Nicholas I sent Prince A.S. Menshikov as ambassador to the Turkish Sultan. with an ultimatum to recognize the rights of the Orthodox Church to holy places in Palestine and to provide Russia with protection over Christians in the Ottoman Empire (who made up approximately a third of the total population). Russian government counted on the support of Austria and Prussia and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible. However, Great Britain, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed to an agreement with France. The British Ambassador, Lord Stradford-Radcliffe, convinced the Turkish Sultan to partially satisfy Russia's demands, promising support in the event of war. As a result, the Sultan issued a decree on the inviolability of the rights of the Orthodox Church to holy places, but refused to enter into an agreement on protection. Prince Menshikov behaved defiantly at meetings with the Sultan, demanding full satisfaction of the ultimatum. Feeling supported Western allies, Türkiye was in no hurry to respond to Russia’s demands. Without waiting for a positive response, Menshikov and the embassy staff left Constantinople. Trying to put pressure on the Turkish government, Nicholas I ordered troops to occupy the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia subordinate to the Sultan. (Initially, the plans of the Russian command were distinguished by courage and determination. It was planned to conduct a “Bosphorus Expedition”, which would include equipment landing ships to reach the Bosphorus and connect with the rest of the troops. When the Turkish fleet went to sea, it was planned to defeat it and then proceed to the Bosphorus. The breakthrough of the Russian stage into the Bosphorus threatened the capital of Turkey, Constantinople. To prevent France from supporting the Ottoman Sultan, the plan called for the occupation of the Dardanelles. Nicholas I accepted the plan, but after listening to Prince Menshikov’s next anti-arguments, he rejected it. Subsequently, other active offensive plans were rejected and the emperor’s choice settled on yet another faceless plan, refusing any active actions. The troops, under the command of Adjutant General Gorchakov, were ordered to reach the Danube, but avoid military action. The Black Sea Fleet was supposed to remain off its shores and avoid battle, dedicating only cruisers to observe enemy fleets. With such a demonstration of force, the Russian emperor hoped to put pressure on Turkey and accept its terms.)

This caused a protest from the Porte, which led to the convening of a conference of commissioners from England, France, Prussia and Austria. Its result was the Vienna Note, a compromise on all sides, which demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danube principalities, but gave Russia the nominal right to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and nominal control over the holy places in Palestine.

The Vienna Note was accepted by Nicholas I, but rejected Turkish Sultan who succumbed to the promised military support British Ambassador. Porta offered various changes in the note that caused the refusal Russian side. As a result, France and Britain entered into an alliance with each other with obligations to defend Turkish territory.

Trying to use the favorable opportunity to “teach a lesson” to Russia with someone else’s hands, Ottoman Sultan demanded to clear the territory of the Danube principalities within two weeks, and after these conditions were not met, on October 4 (16), 1853, he declared war on Russia. On October 20 (November 1), 1853, Russia responded with a similar statement.

PROGRESS OF MILITARY ACTIONS

The Crimean War can be divided into two stages. The first was the Russian-Turkish company itself (November 1853 - April 1854) and the second (April 1854 - February 1856), when the Allies entered the war.

STATE ARMED FORCES RUSSIA

As shown further events, Russia was not organizationally and technically ready for war. Combat strength the army was far from matching those listed on the lists; the reserve system was unsatisfactory; due to the intervention of Austria, Prussia and Sweden, Russia was forced to keep a significant part of the army on western border. The technical lag of the Russian army and navy has acquired alarming proportions.

ARMY

In the 1840-50s in European armies The process of replacing outdated smooth-bore guns with rifled ones was actively underway. At the beginning of the war, the share of rifled guns in the Russian army was approximately 4-5% of total number; in French - 1/3; in English - more than half.

FLEET

WITH early XIX centuries, obsolete ones were replaced in European fleets sailing ships to modern steam engines. Russian fleet On the eve of the Crimean War, it occupied third place in the world in the number of warships (after England and France), but was significantly inferior to the Allied fleets in the number of steam ships.

BEGINNING OF MILITARY ACTIONS

In November 1853 on the Danube against 82 thousand. army of General Gorchakov M.D. Türkiye nominated almost 150 thousand. Omar Pasha's army. But the Turkish attacks were repulsed, and Russian artillery destroyed the Danube flotilla of Turkey. The main forces of Omar Pasha (about 40 thousand people) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardahan detachment (18 thousand people) tried to break through the Borjomi Gorge to Tiflis, but was stopped, and on November 14 (26) defeated near Akhaltsikhe 7 -thousand detachment of General Andronnikov I.M. November 19 (December 1) the troops of Prince Bebutov V.O. (10 thousand people) near Bashkadyklar defeated the main 36 thousand. Turkish army.

At sea, Russia also initially enjoyed success. Mid November Turkish squadron followed to the area of ​​Sukhumi (Sukhum-Kale) and Poti for landing, but due to a strong storm she was forced to take refuge in Sinop Bay. The commander became aware of this Black Sea Fleet Vice Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, and he led his ships to Sinop. Occurred on November 18(30) Battle of Sinop, during which the Russian squadron defeated the Turkish fleet. The Battle of Sinop went down in history as the last major battle era of sailing fleet.

The defeat of Turkey accelerated the entry of France and England into the war. After Nakhimov's victory at Sinop, the British and French squadrons entered the Black Sea under the pretext of protecting Turkish ships and ports from attacks from the Russian side. January 17(29), 1854 french emperor presented an ultimatum to Russia: withdraw troops from the Danube principalities and begin negotiations with Turkey. On February 9 (21), Russia rejected the ultimatum and announced a break diplomatic relations with France and England.

On March 15 (27), 1854, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. On March 30 (April 11), Russia responded with a similar statement.

To forestall the enemy in the Balkans, Nicholas I ordered an offensive in this area. In March 1854, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal I.F. Paskevich. invaded Bulgaria. At first, the company developed successfully - the Russian army crossed the Danube at Galati, Izmail and Brailaa and occupied the fortresses of Machin, Tulcea and Isaccea. But in the future Russian command showed indecision, and the siege of Silistria began only on May 5 (18). However, the fear of entering the war was on the side of the Austrian coalition, which, in alliance with Prussia, concentrated 50 thousand. army in Galicia and Transylvania, and then, with the permission of Turkey, entered the latter’s possessions on the banks of the Danube, forcing the Russian command to lift the siege, and then at the end of August completely withdraw troops from this area.