Social relations and conscious activity. Abstract: Personality as a subject and product of social relations

MODELS OF PERSONAL SOCIALIZATION

There are 2 main models of personality socialization:

o Submission pattern - defined by the fact that a person does something as a result of direct or indirect submission from other people.

o Interest model - a person acts based on his internal interests and needs

PROBLEMS OF SOCIALIZATION OF PERSONALITY IN UKRAINIAN SOCIETY IN MODERN CONDITIONS

Problems of socialization in modern Ukrainian society are associated with three circumstances: 1) change (destruction) of the value system, as a result of which the older generation cannot always prepare young people for life in new conditions; 2) a radical and very rapid change in the social structure of society; the inability of many new social groups to ensure the reproduction of their ranks. 3) weakening of the system of formal and informal social control, as a factor of socialization. One of the most obvious features modern socialization refers to its duration compared to previous periods.

41.CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL STATUS AND SOCIAL ROLE.

In sociology there are several trends in solving sociological approach, two of them are exactly opposite. One tends to absolutize the biological principle in human life, and therefore in understanding social life, social as a phenomenon. The other is the opposite; it is characterized by a complete separation of the personality from the natural principle. In the understanding of man, and at the same time in the understanding of the social as a phenomenon within the framework of this tradition, there is a desire to isolate, to separate far apart the social and natural in man and society. The role concept of personality is a concept that identifies life situations with play and reduces human activity to playing certain standard roles in standard situations. There are two types of social roles - conventional and interpersonal. The former mean a prescribed pattern of behavior that is expected and required of a person in a given situation. The latter are determined by the interaction of people with each other.

Status concept of personality. Social status is the relative position (position) of an individual or group in social system. Depending on whether a person occupies a given position due to inherited characteristics

(race, social background) or thanks to one’s own efforts (education, merit), distinguish between “prescribed” and “achieved” statuses, respectively. Concept social status characterizes the place of the individual in the system of social relations, his activities in the main spheres of life and, finally, the assessment of the individual’s activities by society,

Expressed in certain quantitative and qualitative indicators (salary, bonuses, awards, titles, privileges), as well as self-esteem, which may coincide with the assessment of society or a social group. Modern society is based on a broad division of labor and functions of people in the process of social reproduction. Accordingly, they differ in the place they occupy in society. This difference is captured in the concept

Status. Status is a generalized characteristic. IN modern society it covers profession, economic and political situation, demographic characteristics of a person. Each status has certain rights and responsibilities. These rights and responsibilities can be formal (statutorily established) or informal in nature. Each person is characterized by a certain set of statuses. The most characteristic status of a person, which distinguishes him from other people, is called the main status. The status a person is born into is called ascribed status. Biological characteristics are reflected in the concept of innate status. A person has many statuses, but his real behavior characterized by a certain set of roles. As a result, a status range arises within which behavior varies

Human. Status rank is the position of status relative to others that has developed in society. Status symbols - insignia - clothing, language, gestures, demeanor, income level Each status is characterized by a certain vision

Mira. A set of functionally homogeneous statuses forms a social group. IN in the narrow sense In words, a person’s status is considered to be his place as a representative of a large social group. In addition, there is a distinction between the concept of personal

Status is a person’s position in a small group, characterized by his personal qualities. Each status is characterized by certain social roles - ways of performing functions associated with statuses or certain models

Behaviors. Statuses are always interconnected due to roles. The set of statuses forms the social structure of society. Statuses and roles function in culture. Their specific content is always related to the values and norms accepted in society. Thus, the social structure also has a specific cultural content.

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Topic 1.4. Personality in the system of social relations.
Plan:

The concept of personality.

1. The concept of personality.
IN In everyday and scientific language the following terms are very common: “individual”, “individual”, “individuality”, “subject”, “person”, “personality”. Most often, these words are used as synonyms, but if you strictly approach the definition of these concepts, you can discover significant semantic shades.
Human- the most general, generic concept.

Individual understood as separate special person, as a single representative of the human race and its “first brick” (from the Latin Individ - indivisible, final). The concept of "individual" reflects human biological identity. Indeed, each person has specificity, biological uniqueness: gait, posture, handwriting, fingerprints, voice timbre, an individual code for deciphering the nervous processes of the brain, individual form nose, eyes, ears, etc. Two identical people no on the planet, we are all biologically unique. This is expressed in the concept of “individual”.
Each person has and social originality, social uniqueness. He differs from other people by such characteristics as abilities and specific functions in society, tastes and ideals, profession, knowledge and skills, circle of acquaintances, attitude towards people and life in general, etc. This social identity inherent in the concept "individual".
To reflect unity of biological and social uniqueness, specificity, a general concept is needed. This is the concept of “individuality”. Individuality can be defined as a set of traits that distinguish one individual from another, and the differences are given at the most different levels- biochemical, neurophysiological, psychological, social, etc.
In the process of socialization, a person acquires individuality. However, this is not enough for full inclusion in the system of society, in the system public life. It is not enough to be a bright individual - you must become a subject of public life, a socially functioning individual, a subject of history, i.e. personality.

Personality is first of all a person, then individuality, and finally, and this is the main thing, a subject of social life. The object is the one who is acted upon, subject- the one who acts.
Concept personality is introduced to highlight and emphasize the unnatural essence of man and the individual, i.e. the emphasis is on the social principle.

Among the subjects of social life, the priority place belongs to the individual, or personality. Personality is considered by sociology not in terms of individually unique ones (this is the task of psychology), but in terms of socially typical traits. In other words, in sociology, a person is a typical representative of a large social group, a bearer of the norms, traditions, values, interests and relationships inherent in this group.

The word “personality” is used only in relation to a person and, moreover, begins only from a certain stage of his development. In sociology, personality is defined as:

1. The systemic quality of an individual, determined by his involvement in social relations and manifested in joint activities and communication;

2. Subject of social relations and conscious activity.
We don't say "newborn personality." We are not seriously talking about the personality of even a two-year-old child. People are not born a person, they become a person. At the moment of birth, the child is not yet a person. He is just an individual. An individual is a person as a representative of a species, a product of phylogenetic and ontological development. To become a person, a person must go through a certain path of development.

An indispensable condition for this development are:

1. Biological, genetically determined prerequisites,

2. The presence of a social environment, the world of human culture, with which the child interacts. A child who does not interact with the social environment is not yet a person in the proper sense of the word.
The three components of personality culture naturally bring unity to the problem three main pedagogical processes:

education,
training,
education.

And three directions pedagogical process due to three subsystems of human nature:

informational,
operational,
motivational.

The knowledge system of all types and levels (ideas, concepts, teachings, concepts, judgments, hypotheses, theories, laws) represents the information culture of the individual and is the result of education. A system of skills of all types and levels (skills, habits, techniques, methods, techniques, methods) forms the operational culture of the individual and is the result of training.
Thus, in the structure of personality culture can be distinguished three terms:

Motivational culture (“I want”) is the result of education;

Information culture (“I know”) is the result of education;

Operational culture (“I can do it”) is the result of training.
Based on the three components of personality culture combinatorics method can be builtprimary typology of personalities .

Typology of personalities:

1. Knows, can and wants - educated, trained and educated.

2. Knows, can, does not want - educated, trained, not brought up.

3. Knows, does not know how, does not want - educated, not trained and not brought up.

4. Doesn't know, can, wants - not educated, trained, brought up.

5. Doesn't know, doesn't know how, wants - not educated, not trained, not brought up.

6. Doesn't know, can, doesn't want - not educated, trained, not brought up.

7. Knows, does not know how, wants - educated, not trained, brought up.

8. Doesn't know, doesn't know how, doesn't want - not educated, not trained, not brought up.
And this is not an abstraction. In every social institution, in a company, in a school, in a department, in a family, in a workshop, etc. You can always find examples of people, workers, close to one of the eight options. What is important here is the very problem of the possibility of a typology of personalities based on one of the grounds - the degree of preparedness for activity. But the formation of readiness for activity is the essence of pedagogical activity.

Each person has a totality internal qualities, properties that make up its structure. Personality is a relatively late product social development. The individual is required, first of all, to be independent, to take responsibility, that is, to be responsible for his own actions. Independence reveals itself through initiative, responsibility, enterprise, the ability to strictly control one’s behavior and subordinate it to a single life strategy.

The concept of “personality” shows how socially significant traits are individually reflected in each person and how his essence is manifested as the totality of all social relations.

Of course, personality, from the point of view of sociology, means an individual person who exhibits socially significant features of individual life activity through interaction with other people and thereby contributes to the stabilization and development of social relations. Personality is a special quality acquired by an individual thanks to public relations.

Society and the social environment are capable of influencing personality in two directions - suppressing and developing it. Historians have noticed: the higher the cultural level of a society, the higher a person is valued as an individual. And vice versa. Hence, There is a direct relationship between the development of the individual and society.
Indifferent relationships in the family, lack of warmth and trust between parents and children, endless costs, punishment, and excessive severity suppress the freedom of the child. He grows up callous and aggressive. Any child is drawn to warmth and affection, and when he does not receive it, he develops an inferiority complex. Repressed desires are driven deep inside, and later manifest themselves in a perverted form - as excessive cruelty or complete indifference to other people.

The inner world of such a person is, as it were, bifurcated: ostentatious obedience, reaching the point of veneration and servility before superiors, is combined with hidden aggressiveness, a thirst for rebellion and revenge. Such a person humiliates himself in front of the stronger ones, and strives to humiliate the weaker ones himself.
Suppressing your feelings is as dangerous as complete liberation the elements of unconscious instincts - unbridledness, bad manners, intemperance. To succumb to feelings, passions or fears that escape from the subconscious means to behave like an unreasonable person. To express prudence, common sense and purposefulness means to be more high start individuality. However, we can become a person only if we have developed moral consciousness. Altruism and selfless love for others, opposed to egoism and self-interest, constitute the foundation of the human personality, the formation of which begins in society and family.

Without them, the completion of a person’s personality is not possible. Personality - highest achievement human efforts, the result of painstaking work on one’s spiritual world.Not all people reach spiritual heights. But great figures (Jesus Christ, Mohammed), great spiritual leaders (Michelangelo, Socrates, Dostoevsky) and many spiritual devotees - ascetics, monks, scientists, artists, etc. achieved maximum perfection on the moral path. Each of us can take this path by committing even small moral acts.
Thus, the sociology of personality is a branch of sociological knowledge that has as its subject of study the personality as an object and subject of social relations within the social historical process and value social systems, at the level of relationships between personality and social communities.

2. Role theories of personality. Social status.
The role theory of personality occupies a significant place in the sociology of personality. The main provisions of this theory were formulated by American sociologists J. Mead and R. Minton.

The role theory of personality describes its social behavior with two main concepts:

a) “social status”,

b) “social role”.
Let's look at what these concepts mean.
a) Each person in the social system occupies several positions. Each of these positions, which involves certain rights and responsibilities, is called status. A person can have several statuses. But more often than not, only one determines his position in society. This status is called main.

It often happens that the main status is determined by his position (for example, director, professor). Social status is reflected both in external behavior and appearance (clothing, jargon and other signs of social and professional affiliation), and in the internal position (in attitudes, value orientations, motivations, etc.).

There are prescribed and acquired statuses.

Prescribed- this means imposed by society, regardless of the efforts and merits of the individual. It is determined by ethnic origin, place of birth, family, etc.

Acquired (achieved) status determined by the efforts of the person himself (for example, a writer, general secretary, director, etc.).
Natural and professional-official statuses are also distinguished. Natural status personality presupposes significant and relatively stable characteristics of a person (men and women, childhood, youth, maturity, old age, etc.).

Professional official- this is the basic status of the individual, for an adult, most often the basis of the integral status. It records the social, economic, production and technical position (banker, engineer, lawyer, etc.).
Social status denotes the specific place that an individual occupies in a given social system.
b) The totality of requirements presented to an individual by society forms the content of a social role. Social role - this is a set of actions that a person occupying a given status in the social system must perform. Each status usually includes a number of roles.
One of the first attempts to systematize roles was made by T. Parsons. He believed that any the role is described by 5 main characteristics:

emotional- some roles require emotional restraint, others - looseness;
method of obtaining- some are prescribed, others are conquered;
scale- some roles are formulated and strictly limited, others -... blurred;
formalization- action in strictly established rules or arbitrarily;
motivation- for personal profit, for the common good, etc. Any role is characterized by a certain set of these five properties.

The social role should be considered in two aspects:

role expectations and
role performance.

There is never a complete match between these two aspects. But each of them is of great importance in the behavior of an individual. Our roles are determined primarily by what others expect of us. These expectations are associated with the status that a given person has. If someone does not play a role in accordance with our expectations, then he enters into a certain conflict with society. For example, a parent should take care of children, a close friend should be concerned about our problems, etc.

Role requirements (instructions, wishes and expectations of appropriate behavior) are embodied in specific social norms ah, grouped around social status.
In the normative structure of a social role, 4 elements are usually distinguished:

1) description of the type of behavior corresponding to this role;

2) instructions (requirements) associated with this behavior;

3) assessment of the fulfillment of the prescribed role;

4) sanction - social consequences one or another action within the framework of the requirements of the social system.
Social sanctions in nature they can be moral, implemented directly by a social group through its behavior (for example, contempt), or legal, political, environmental, etc., implemented through the activities of specific social institutions. The meaning of social sanctions is to induce a person to a certain type of behavior. They are one of the essential elements social regulation.

It should be noted that any role is not a pure model of behavior. The main link between role expectations and role behavior is the character of the individual. This means that the behavior of a particular person does not fit into a pure scheme.

Because each person plays multiple roles in many different situations, conflict can arise between roles. A situation in which a person is faced with the need to satisfy the demands of two or more incompatible roles is called role conflict. Conflict creates stressful situation, and it is necessary to find ways to harmonize roles.

Thematic assignment for the topic “Social status”.
Without the concept of status, it is impossible to give students a holistic picture of the distribution of the population by social class. One of the important points when discussing this topic is the prestige of occupations (professions). It is known that some occupations are more paid, more prestigious and more honorable than others. Inequality of occupations entails social inequality generally.
Exercise

To develop skills in understanding the topic of professional prestige.
Here is a list of activities: bartender, reporter, policeman, company director, farmer, artisan, manager, clerk, farm worker, dock worker, etc.
Tasks and questions:

1. Assign each lesson one of 5 ranks - A, B, C, D, E, where A is max, and E is min. Several activities can be located on one step. Remember that you are interested in status, not class, i.e. what level of prestige you assign to a particular occupation.

2. Explain how you ranked the classes and by what criteria.

3. Do the same, but imagine that you are a successful businessman. Explain your ranking criteria. Has it changed?

4. Do the same from the standpoint of another occupation, less prestigious.

Man is a unity of biological and social nature. Like all living things, he is born and dies, obtains food for himself, arranges his home, and leaves behind offspring. But unlike animals, humans are characterized by symbolically mediated interaction (communication), in which not only currently living but also past generations participate. This interaction (culture) determines the forms and ways of life (that is, social, economic, family, political, religious, etc. relations) of a person. Representatives of different sociological schools define the relationship between the biological and the social in man differently (for example, from the point of view of social Darwinism, human life is determined by the factors of biological life: the struggle for existence, natural selection etc., and from the standpoint of Marxist sociology, competition and enmity between people are generated by social relations, therefore, under a certain social system, they can disappear).

Man is a general, generic concept. It denotes everyone who belongs to to the human race, because it has properties and qualities inherent in all people. An individual is understood as a single specific person. Individuality is defined as social uniqueness, which is formed in the process of upbringing and human activity under the influence of a specific sociocultural environment and distinguishes one individual from another.

The concept of personality emphasizes the unnatural essence of man and the individual and means a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant traits, properties and qualities that he realizes in public life.

In sociology, personality is defined in two ways:

1) this is a systemic quality of an individual, determined by his involvement in social relations and manifested in joint activities and communication,

2) the subject of social relations and conscious activity.

The formation of personality is influenced by the following factors (according to S.S. Frolov):

1. biological heredity

2. physical environment (climatic conditions, Natural resources)

3. culture

4. group experience (people around you)

5. unique personalized experience

1) Biological heredity cannot completely create personality, since neither culture nor social experience is transmitted with genes. However biological factor must be taken into account, since, firstly, it creates restrictions for social communities (the helplessness of a child, the inability to stay under water for a long time, the presence biological needs etc.), and secondly, thanks to the biological factor, an endless variety of temperaments, characters, abilities are created that make each human person individuality, i.e., a unique, unique creation.

2) Physical environment. Some researchers (Aristotle, Hippocrates, G.V. Plekhanov, L.N. Gumilyov) believed that group differences in the behavior of individuals are mainly determined by differences in climatic, geographical features and natural resources.

However, in similar physical and geographical conditions different types of personalities are formed, and, conversely, it very often happens that similar group characteristics of personalities develop in different conditions environment In this regard, we can say that the physical environment can influence the cultural characteristics of a social group, but its influence on the formation of an individual personality is insignificant and incomparable with the influence of the group’s culture, group or individual experience on the personality.

3) Culture. First of all, it should be noted that a certain cultural experience is common to all humanity and does not depend on what stage of development a particular society is at. Thus, each child receives nutrition from elders, learns to communicate through language, gains experience in the use of punishment and reward, and also masters some other most common cultural patterns. At the same time, each society provides almost all of its members with some special experience, special cultural samples that other societies cannot offer. From social experience, common to all members of a given society, a characteristic personal configuration arises, typical of many members of a given society. For example, a personality formed in a Muslim culture will have different traits compared to a personality raised in a Christian country.

4) Group experience. At the beginning life path a person does not have his own self. The isolation of the individual, first from the physical world, and then from the social world, is a rather complex process that continues throughout life. At the age of about one and a half years, the child begins to use the concept of “I”, while realizing that he is becoming a separate human being. Continuing to accumulate social experience, the child forms images of various personalities, including the image of his own self. All further formation of a person as an individual is the construction of one’s own Self on the basis of constant comparison of oneself with other individuals.

5) Unique personalized experience. Even twins with the same heredity will always be raised differently, since they cannot constantly meet the same people, hear the same words from their parents, experience the same joys and sorrows. In this regard, it can be said that Each personal experience is unique because no one can repeat it exactly. It can also be noted that the picture of individual experience is complicated by the fact that the person does not simply summarize this experience, but integrates it. Each person not only adds up the incidents and events that happened to him, like bricks in a wall, but he refracts their meaning through his past experience, as well as the experience of his parents, loved ones, and acquaintances.

So, the formation of personality is influenced to a certain extent by the biological factor, the physical environment and culture, but the main ones, according to sociologists, are still group and unique individual experience.

Socialization represents the process of personality formation, its gradual assimilation of the requirements of society, the acquisition of socially significant characteristics of consciousness and behavior that regulate its relationship with society. The following stages of socialization are distinguished:

1. Primary socialization or adaptation stage (from birth to adolescence, the child assimilates social experience uncritically, adapts, accommodates, imitates).

2. Stage of individualization (adolescence – there is a desire to distinguish oneself from others).

3. Stage of integration (an attempt to find one’s place in society, to “fit in” with society).

4. The labor stage is the entire period of a person’s maturity, his labor activity, when a person not only assimilates social experience, but also reproduces it through active influence on the environment through his activities.

5. Post-labor stage - considers old age as an age that makes a significant contribution to the reproduction of social experience, to the process of transmitting it to other generations.

Institutions that influence and guide the process of socialization are called institutions of socialization, and people responsible for training cultural norms and mastering social roles – by agents of socialization.

Socialization goes through stages that coincide with life cycles person (enrolling in a university, starting a family, choosing a profession and employment, military service, retirement). Each time a person enters a new cycle, he has to relearn a lot. This process breaks down into two stages.

Unlearning old values, norms, roles and rules of behavior is called desocialization. The next stage of learning new values, norms, roles and rules of behavior is called resocialization.

Sometimes a person finds himself in such extreme conditions where desocialization goes so deep that it destroys moral principles personality, and resocialization turns out to be superficial. She is not able to restore all the wealth of lost values, norms and roles. This is exactly what those who end up in prisons and colonies, psychiatric hospitals, and sometimes those serving in the army face.

Erving Goffman singled following signs resocialization in extreme conditions:

Isolation from outside world (high walls, bars, special passes, etc.),

Constant communication with the same people with whom the individual works, rests, etc.,

Loss of previous identification, which occurs through the ritual of dressing up (special uniforms instead of civilian clothes),

Renaming, replacing the old name with a “number” and obtaining the status: prisoner, sick,

Replacing the old environment with a new, impersonal one,

Unlearning old habits, values, customs and getting used to new ones,

Loss of freedom of action.

Personality theories

To determine what motivates a person during the socialization process, theories of personal motivation in life are used. The most common of them is the hierarchy of needs theory. Abraham Maslow.

He divides all human needs into five main categories:

Physiological (vital) – in food, breathing, physical movements, human reproduction, clothing, recreation,

Existential needs (or needs for security of existence). They are physical and economic. Physical – needs to maintain health, in the absence of violence against a person’s personality and life. In general terms, we can say that we are talking about confidence in the future, stability of living conditions, the need for in a certain order, as well as the desire to avoid unfair treatment. Economic needs are found in the world of work: job security, accident insurance, the desire to have a permanent means of subsistence (earnings),

Social needs: the need for friendship and affection, belonging to a group, communication, participation in formal and informal organizations, caring for others and attention to oneself,

Prestige needs - the need for respect from “significant others”, career growth, achievements, high status, independence and recognition. They are also called evaluation needs or egoistic needs, because they are focused on oneself,

Spiritual needs are the needs for self-expression through creativity.

Physiological and existential needs are usually called primary (innate), and social, prestigious and spiritual needs are called secondary (socially acquired).

According to Maslow's theories, only an unsatisfied need organizes the behavior of an individual, forcing him to take the actions necessary to satisfy it. The intensity of the need is related to the place it occupies.

If lower needs are inherent in all people in equally, then the higher ones - to an unequal extent. From a social point of view, a person is much less characterized by food preferences than by ways of satisfying the need for communication, for example, in choosing friends and a circle of acquaintances. Higher needs act as a means of differentiating people. Moreover, they are in to a greater extent than other needs, influence the formation of a person’s personality.

Famous American psychologist and sociologist Charles Cooley offered theory of the “mirror self”.

Just as reflection in a mirror gives the image of the physical self, so the perception of other people’s reactions to my behavior or appearance gives the image of the social self. In accordance with the teachings of Charles Cooley, personality develops only thanks to the opinions of others, limiting itself to a selective role.

University of Chicago professor, philosopher, sociologist and social psychologist George Mead(1865 – 1931) developed a theory that explains the essence of the process of an individual’s perception of other personalities and develops concept of the “generalized other”, to a certain extent complements and develops the theory of the mirror self. The “generalized other” represents the universal values and standards of behavior of a certain group, which form an individual self-image among the members of this group. In the process of communication, an individual, as it were, takes the place of other individuals and sees himself as a different person. He evaluates his actions and appearance in accordance with the presented assessments of his “generalized other.”

Role concept of personality arose in American psychology in the 30s of the twentieth century (J. Mead) and became widespread in various sociological movements, primarily in structural-functional analysis. T. Parsons and his followers consider personality as a function of the many social roles that are inherent in any individual in a particular society.

The same person performs many roles, which may contradict and not be consistent with each other, which leads to the emergence of role conflict. An example of this is the often described conflict between a woman's professional and family roles.

In addition to the roles that carry a direct social load and have meaning and significance for the social system as a whole, there are also personal relationships between people with each other, in which a person also occupies a certain place and, in accordance with it, performs certain functions. This layer of relationships is described by the concept of “interpersonal role.” Like social roles, interpersonal roles can also be different and even completely opposite in different small groups: friend, enemy, confidant, etc. Often a person is forced to take into account in his behavior this diverse palette of expectations placed on him, to focus not on one, but on several groups at once.

Freud's concept of personality considers a person as a system of needs, and society as a system of prohibitions, taboos. The unconscious (primarily sexual) aspirations of an individual form its potential and the main source of activity, and set the motivation for its actions. Due to the impossibility of satisfying instinctive needs in their natural form due to social normative restrictions, a person is forced to constantly seek a compromise between a deep drive and a socially acceptable form of its implementation. The model of personality created by Freud is a three-level formation: the lowest layer (Id or Id), represented by unconscious impulses and “ancestral memories”, the middle layer (I or Ego) and upper layer(Super-I or Super-Ego) - the norms of society perceived by a person. The most rigid, aggressive and militant layers are the Id and the Super-ego. They “attack” the human psyche from both sides, giving rise to a neurotic type of behavior. This is a model of an individual constantly defending against social pressure and in conflict with the social environment. Since, as society develops, the upper layer (Super-Ego) inevitably increases, becomes more massive and heavy, then all human history is considered by Freud as a history of increasing psychosis.

Behavioral concept considers personality as a system of reactions to various stimuli (B. Skinner, J. Homans). The behavior of each person is determined and controlled by the social environment through language, customs, social institutions, the media, etc. When interacting with other people, a person in any social group “watches out” for his own interests: if his behavior is encouraged, positively stimulated, then he will be loyal and friendly towards others and the social system as a whole; if he does not receive recognition from society, he will most likely behave in an aggressive, disorganizing manner. But every person strives to avoid punishment and receive rewards, and in this regard, he unambiguously responds to external incentives and social orders. In other words, when considering the problem of personality, analyzing why a person reacts in a certain way to a particular situation, behavioral sociology assigns the main role to the system of incentives, “reinforcements,” drawing a direct analogy between the behavior of humans and animals. Hence the changes personal behavior are derived from the learning process, understood as the stimulation of “good” ones, i.e. desired actions.

C. Rogers' theory of self-actualization states that every person is endowed with the desire to take care of his life in order to preserve and improve it. He has the ability to solve problems that arise before him and properly direct his behavior. This ability, however, can only develop in the context of social relationships.

The child's self-image, i.e. the concept of one’s own “I” will evolve in accordance with the situations that arise before him and his own actions; it is actually formed on the basis of the varied experiences that he will have to experience in communicating with other people. Rogers calls this belief system the “real self.”

A person, in addition, tends to see himself as what he would like to become as a result of realizing his capabilities (“ideal self”). It is this “ideal self” that the “real self” strives to approach. According to Rogers’ concept, a person’s “real self” most often encounters a contradiction between the “ideal self,” which reflects what a person would like to become, and the demands of society, which manifest themselves, as a rule, in the form of a conditional attitude towards his actions.

The concept of “status” came to sociology from jurisprudence, where it means legal status legal entity. A detailed sociological justification for this category was given in the works of famous American sociologists R. Linton, R. Merton and others.

In the very in a broad sense social status is the position of an individual in society, which implies certain rights and responsibilities. Since the individual is included in the most various systems social connections and relationships, where he occupies corresponding positions, he has not one, but several statuses. These statuses vary depending on gender, age, nationality, origin, marital status, education, profession, position, nature of the work performed, religiosity, etc. The totality of all these statuses of an individual is called a “status set”. In the status set, the main (integral) status is distinguished, which determines the position of a person in society as a whole. This is the most characteristic status for a given individual, with which other people identify him/her. Most often, this status is associated with professional looking activity, occupation, position at the main place of work. In any case, the main status determines the style and lifestyle, circle of acquaintances, behavior, etc. Varieties of social status are prescribed and achieved statuses. Prescribed is the status that an individual receives from birth, regardless of his will and desire. This status is determined by gender, nationality, ethnic origin, place of birth, kinship system, etc. Achieved is called status acquired through the individual's own efforts. It is determined by education, profession, qualifications, position, etc. This status presupposes freedom of choice, the activity of the individual, and his ability to make independent decisions. Mixed status combines the features of the prescribed and achieved (statuses of pensioner, disabled person, unemployed, etc.). Historical experience shows that in traditional pre-industrial society prescribed statuses prevailed, which determined the overall picture of social life. In modern society, on the contrary, achieved statuses dominate, stimulating the social activity of the individual, the development of his spiritual freedom and independence.

It is customary to distinguish from social status personal status, which reflects the position occupied by an individual in a small group depending on how he is assessed by his personal qualities. Social and personal status do not always coincide: a person may occupy important place in the socio-political hierarchy and at the same time being an outsider on the sports field. And vice versa, a person, without being a leader, may be informal leader in the company of friends or on a sports team.

There is also a distinction between natural status (which presupposes significant and relatively stable characteristics of a person - men and women; childhood, youth, maturity, old age, etc.) and professional status (which records the social, economic, production and technical status).

Status portrait of a person includes the totality of all statuses inherent in a person at a certain period of his life. As a rule, permanent statuses (gender, race, nationality) do not change throughout life, but achieved ones can appear, change or disappear (religious statuses, territorial, professional, political, economic, etc.). In addition, the status portrait includes episodic statuses that are temporary to a person (for example, a passenger on a transport; someone in a queue; a restaurant visitor, etc.).

With the help of statuses, relationships between people are regulated. Social statuses are reflected both in external behavior and appearance - clothing, jargon, manners, and in the internal position of the individual - attitudes, value orientations, motives.

The concept of social status is closely related to the concept of social role. Social role- This is a behavior model focused on a given status. This concept reflects situations of social interaction when certain behavioral stereotypes are regularly reproduced over a long period of time. Therefore, the social role can be defined as expected behavior of an individual determined by his status in society. In other words, this is a type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations inherent in a particular status.

There is an important intermediate link between status and role - expectation (expectation), “presented” by society or a social group to people of a given status. Role Expectations(expectations) can be fixed in the form of rules, standards, norms of behavior, or they can also have an informal character. In both cases, they act as a special type of social regulation.

Each status most often involves not one, but several roles. The set of roles corresponding to a given status is defined as a “role set”.

Thus, a social role is a unique pattern of behavior required from a bearer of a certain status. When claiming this status, a person must fulfill all the role requirements assigned to this social position.

Real role behavior, which means not the socially expected, but the actual behavior of the performer, should be distinguished from a social role as a model of behavior. specific role. And here a lot depends on the personal qualities of the individual, on the degree to which he has assimilated social norms, on his beliefs, attitudes, and value orientations.

In the process of implementing social roles, certain difficulties may arise related to the need for a person to fulfill different situations many roles. This leads in some cases to a mismatch of social roles, to the emergence of contradictions and conflicting relationships between them. Sociologists distinguish the following types of role conflicts:

intra-role conflicts- these are conflicts in which the requirements of the same role contradict each other (thus, the role of parents involves not only kind, affectionate treatment of children, but also exactingness and severity towards them);

inter-role conflicts- conflicts that arise in situations where the requirements of one role contradict the requirements of another (for example, the requirements of a woman’s main job may conflict with her performance of household duties);

personality-role conflicts- conflict situations when the requirements of a social role contradict the interests and life aspirations of the individual (for example, when work does not allow a person to reveal and demonstrate his abilities).

Social experience shows that very few roles are free from internal stresses and conflicts, which often lead to refusal to fulfill role obligations, discomfort, moral crisis, and psychological stress. The way out of this situation is to use a number of protective psychological mechanisms(“rationalization of roles” - transfer of claims from one role to another; “separation of roles”, which involves “turning off” undesirable roles from the individual’s consciousness), as well as normative regulation of roles in order to resolve conflict situations.

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Social relations and conscious activity. Abstract: Personality as a subject and product of social relations

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