Modern Russian is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language. On Old Russian language talked East Slavic tribes, who formed the Old Russian people within the 9th century Kyiv State.
This language was very similar to other languages Slavic peoples, but already differed in some phonetic and lexical features.
All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from common root- single Proto-Slavic language, which probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries.
In the 14th-15th centuries. as a result of the collapse of the Kyiv state based on single language Old Russian people there were three independent language: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of nations took shape into national languages.
Russian language refers to largest languages world: in terms of the number of speakers it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Refers to eastern group Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread.
Grammatical structure ( from Greek γράμμα - recording) - a set of laws of any language that regulate the correct construction of significant speech segments (words, statements, texts).
In this work we consider distinctive features grammatical structure of the Russian language.
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“Features of the grammatical structure of the Russian language”
Modern Russian is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed the Old Russian people within the Kyiv state in the 9th century.
This language was very similar to the languages of other Slavic peoples, but already differed in some phonetic and lexical features.
All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries.
In the 14th-15th centuries. As a result of the collapse of the Kievan state, on the basis of a single language of the Old Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of nations took shape into national languages.
Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread.
Grammatical structure (grammatical system, grammar from γράμμα - record) - a set of patterns of anylanguage regulating the correct construction of significant speech segments (words, statements, texts).
Central parts of grammar -morphology(rules for constructing words from smaller meaningful units - morphemes - and rules for formation and understanding grammatical forms words) andsyntax (rules for constructing statements from words), as well as the intermediate spheremorphosyntax (rules of combination and arrangementclitic , function words, auxiliary words (seeword , analyticism (linguistics)), construction analytical forms ).
Usually the grammar also includesword formation and, sometimes - morphonology ; vocabulary and phonetic structure of the language (see.phonetics ) are often taken outside the bounds of grammar.
The boundaries between morphology and syntax are clear only for(especially for) languages; V these boundaries are somewhat blurred. IN and , as well as in such boundaries are almost imperceptible.
The most important units of grammar (grammatical units) - morpheme , word , syntagma, offer And text . All these units are characterized by a certain and certain.
Within the grammar (as well as within other subsystems of the language) there areparadigmatics And syntagmatics .
Grammatical paradigmatics covers similarities and differences grammatical units, their combination, on the one hand, into grammaticalparadigms based on grammatical contrasts with lexical identity (for example, table, table, table, table, etc.; see), and on the other - in grammar classesbased on grammatical similarities when lexical differences. For example, table, house, city, person, etc.; cm. ).
Grammatical syntagmatics covers general patternscompatibility grammatical units with each other as part of more large units top level- morphemes as part of a word, words as part of a syntagma, syntagmas as part of a sentence, sentences as part of a text, that is, the rules for combining grammatical units ingrammatical structuresand, accordingly, the rulesgrammatical division these structures into parts ().
Grammar and vocabulary are closely interconnected. Historically, this connection is manifested inlexicalization (“solidification”) of grammatical forms (in the transition of forms into words or free combinations into phraseological units) and ingrammaticalization (in the transition of words togrammatical indicators- first in auxiliary and , and then in affixes ). This connection is also evident in the interaction lexical meanings with grammatical ones, in mutualfunctional compensationlexical And grammaticalmeans: vocabulary can compensate for gaps in grammar (in particular, whensuppletivism , at replacing words With flawed paradigm their synonyms, when using words insemi-official function), and grammar can compensate for gaps in vocabulary (withconversions , transpositions, use grammatical means Vdistinctive function ).
The first feature that creates the complexity of Russian morphology is the variability of the word, that is, the grammatical design of words with endings. The endings express the case and number of nouns, the agreement of adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers in phrases, the person and number of verbs of the present and future tense, the gender and number of verbs of the past tense.
The second feature of the Russian language is word order. Unlike other languages, Russian allows more freedom in word arrangement. The subject can come either before the predicate or after the predicate. Other members of the sentence can also be rearranged. Syntactically related words can be separated by other words. Of course, this or that word order is not at all accidental, but it is not purely regulated grammar rules, as in others European languages, where it is used to distinguish, for example, the functions of words such as subject and object.
Different sides of the tongue change with to varying degrees activity: vocabulary changes most actively and most noticeably for speakers. Everyone knows the concepts of archaisms/neologisms. The meanings of words and their compatibility change. Phonetic system and grammatical structure languages, including Russian, are much more stable, but changes are also taking place here. They are not immediately noticeable, not like changes in the use of words. But specialists, historians of the Russian language, have established very important, profound changes that have occurred in the Russian language over the past 10 centuries. The changes that took place over two years are also known. last centuries, since the time of Pushkin - they are not so deep. For example, a certain type of entity. husband. p changed the plural form. numbers: in the times of Zhukovsky and Pushkin they said: houses, teachers, breads with the emphasis on the first syllable. The replacement of the ending ы with a stressed one initially occurred only in in separate words, then they began to pronounce more and more words like this: teacher, professor, haystack, workshop, mechanic. It is characteristic that this process is still ongoing and involves more and more words, i.e. you and I, who speak Russian now, are witnesses and participants in this process.
As we see, there is a fundamental, fundamental difference between changes in writing (graphics) and changes in language: no king, no ruler can change the language by his own will. You cannot order speakers not to utter certain sounds or not to use certain cases. Changes in language occur under the influence of various factors and reflect internal properties language. They occur against the will of the speakers (although, naturally, they are created by themselves speaking community). We are not talking about changes in the style of letters, in the number of letters, or in spelling rules. The history of language and the history of writing are different stories. Science (the history of the Russian language) has established how the Russian language has changed over the centuries: what changes have occurred in sound system, in morphology, in syntax and in vocabulary. Development trends are also studied, new phenomena and processes are noted. New trends arise in living speech - oral and written.
In principle, a language can exist without writing (although its possibilities in this case are limited). At the dawn of mankind, at first there was only oral speech. There are still peoples in the world who do not have a written language, but they naturally have a language. Other proofs of the possibility of language without writing can be given. For example: young children speak a language without writing (before they go to school). So, language existed and exists, first of all, in orally. But with the development of civilization, it also acquired another form - written. Written form speech developed on the basis of oral speech and existed primarily as its graphic representation. In itself, it is a remarkable achievement of the human mind to establish a correspondence between an element of speech and a graphic icon.
Eastern Slavs
Morphological analysis of the word
Syntactic analysis of the sentence.
Thank you for your attention!
There are many words in the Russian language that convey the speaker’s positive or negative attitude towards the subject of thought, that is, they have expression. Thus, the words bliss, luxurious, magnificent, fearless, charm contain positive expression, and the words chatterbox, klutz, stupidity, daub are characterized by negative expression.
The grammatical structure of the language is also rich, flexible and expressive. Let's take the species category as an example. Unlike the category of time, which indicates the relationship of the action to the moment of speech, the category of type indicates the manner in which the action occurs. So, in species pair read - read verbs characterize action in different ways. The verb read (perfect form) indicates an action that has exhausted itself and cannot continue. Verb read ( imperfect look) indicates an action that is not limited.
In style reviews good writers you can hear: “What a rich language!” And about a bad writer or speaker they say: “His language is so poor...” What is the difference between rich speech and poor speech?
Word count (active dictionary). The very first point of wealth and poverty of speech is the number of words that the speaker uses. Active vocabulary the person speaking in front of the public must be quite rich.
Polysemy. Rich speech is also characterized correct use polysemantic words. For example, the word house . In what meanings is it used by Pushkin? 1) Lord's house alone deep, mountain from the winds fenced, stood over the river" (house – "building, structure");2) I'm scared to go out from home (house – "a dwelling where someone lives; 3) IN seven home Parasha rules alone (house -"household; 4) Three Houses they're calling for the evening (house – "family"); 5) House was on the move (house – "people living together"). Thus, different meanings words expand the boundaries of its use in speech. And we ourselves can increase wealth native language if we learn to discover new meanings in words.
Synonyms. Nothing enriches a speaker’s speech more than synonyms of his native language. Absolutely unambiguous s There are very few words in Russian: linguistics – linguistics. But synonyms with different semantic and stylistic shades are common. For example:
Laugh – giggle, laugh, laugh, die laughing, roll with laughter, chuckle, cackle, chuckle, laugh until you cry, laugh until you drop.
Love – to be indifferent, to have weakness, to adore, to glow with love, to suffer for someone, to sigh, to pine, to be crazy, to dote on the soul.
No – get rid of, fire, pipes, for nothing, here's another, what else, for no price, keep your pocket wider, under no circumstances! Never!
When conveying this or that thought, you should use the rich synonymous capabilities of the Russian language!
Comparisons . Replenishment of the speaker's vocabulary also occurs through comparisons. Comparisons create unique images.
D. Carnegie in his book “How to Develop Self-Confidence and Influence People by Speaking in Public” gives comparisons, for example, to the word cold: cold , How … frog, ramrod, tomb, salt, autumn rain, clay, ice peak
A successful comparison makes speech rich and decorates it.
Phraseologisms . Phraseologisms create special images in the speaker’s language, i.e. complex in composition linguistic units having stable character (rack your brains, exaggerate, the cat cried, upside down).
The main condition for correct speech is the use of phraseological units in accordance with their exact meaning. Speakers who are inattentive to their speech most often distort the composition of phraseological units. At the same time, they mistakenly insert into stable combinations extra words, for example: The writer goes to one keep up with his time; Main The highlight of the evening was the magician's performance. Mixing phraseological units is also unacceptable, for example: 3gathered here narrow circle limited people(Right: narrow circle or limited circle of people).
So, richness and variety public speech created by the rich active dictionary, the use of polysemantic words, synonyms, figurative comparisons, phraseological units.
Phenomena that clog speech
In a tongue-tied person, speech poverty and inability to express thoughts often coexist with negative phenomena, “clogging” speech. Among them:
1) “hackneyed” formulations: more or less, ok, nothing ;
3) slang forms: waste! Cool! Great! funny! I'm trudged!
4) word abbreviations: communal apartment, B MB-ushka, VCR, TV;
5) phonetic contractions: thousand, right now, just, what?
7) spelling errors: * catalog, inci n dent .
The mentioned phenomena are unacceptable in the speaker’s speech.
Conclusion
Man is a social being, and leading communication tool is speech. “I think, therefore I exist,” wrote Descartes. But thought without speech structure is ethereal. Main function speech is the transformation of the internal image of a person, which arose as a result of subconscious internal or spiritual work, into the consciousness of the listener. To accurately reproduce the image it is necessary expressive speech, thanks to which the reproduced information makes its way through the prism subjective assessment person and becomes an integral part of him inner world. The expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader.
An appropriate person can speak expressively following conditions: independence of thinking; indifference; good knowledge of the language expressive possibilities; good knowledge of properties and features language styles; systematic and conscious training of speech skills.
Expressive means of language are sometimes reduced to the so-called expressive-figurative, i.e., tropes and figures, but expressiveness can be enhanced by units of language at all its levels - from sounds to syntax and styles. The expressive capabilities of a word are supported and strengthened by the actualization of its semantics. The actualization of the semantics of a word in poetry is usually associated with what can be called associativity imaginative thinking. Others also act on the principles of the association means of expression speech. The syntax of language has no less potential than vocabulary to enhance and weaken the expressiveness of speech.
One ability to find “one’s own”, expressive and emotional words will not make your speech come alive if you do not know the secrets of expressive syntax. After all, you need to be able to construct words from them into sentences that would allow you to use a variety of intonations and skillfully place pauses.
References
1. Vasilyeva A.N. Fundamentals of speech culture. – M., 1990
2. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G. Business rhetoric. - Rostov-on-Don: Publishing Center “MarT”, 2001
3. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Culture and the art of speech. Modern rhetoric. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 1996
4. Vinokur T.G. Speaker and listener. Options speech behavior. M., 2001
5. Zaretskaya E.N. Logic of speech for a manager. – M., 1996
6. Klyuev E.V. Speech communication: Tutorial for universities and universities. – M., 1998
7. Klyuev E.V. Rhetoric: Textbook for universities. – M., 1999
8. Leontyev A.L. Psychology of communication. M., 1997.
9. Maslova V.A. Linguoculturology. M., 2001.
10. Soper P. – Fundamentals of the art of speech. – M., 1992
11. Khoruzhenko K.M. Culturology. Encyclopedic Dictionary. Rostov-on-Don, 1997.
Vasilyeva A. N. Fundamentals of speech culture. – M., 1990
Vvedenskaya L. A., Pavlova L. G., Culture and the art of speech. Modern rhetoric. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 1996
Vinokur T.G. Speaker and listener. Variants of speech behavior. M., 2001
Klyuev E.V. Speech communication: A textbook for universities and universities. – M., 1998
Klyuev E.V. Rhetoric: Textbook for universities. – M., 1999
Khoruzhenko K.M. Culturology. Encyclopedic Dictionary. Rostov-on-Don, 1997.
SPEECH QUALITY
The normative aspect of speech culture is associated with knowledge of the merits of speech that make it effective. These necessary norms, the virtues of speech, call it communication skills, as they ensure optimal communication between the parties.
Linguists, when studying the signs of exemplary speech, put its correctness in the first place.
CORRECT SPEECH
This is the compliance of speech with the requirements for the language in a given language community at a certain historical period; compliance with the norms of pronunciation, stress, word usage, formation, construction of phrases and sentences; V in writing- compliance with spelling and punctuation standards.
Correct speech– this is its compliance with the norms of the language.
Language norm- this is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language; this is how it is customary to speak and write in a given society in a given era. A norm is a set of rules for the selection and use of linguistic means from the options offered by the language.
Modern theory language norm defines its following characteristics:
a) objectivity of the norm;
b) stability of the norm and its variability;
c) variability of the norm;
d) codification of the norm.
For a linguistic fact to become a norm, it must have the following signs:
Massive and regular use ( language usage);
Approval from the educated part of society;
Compliance with the language system.
The norm is a historical category: being to a certain extent stable, stable, the norm is at the same time subject to change, which follows from the nature of language as a social phenomenon, which is in constant development together with the creator and speaker of the language - society.
The norm is certainly changing ( rust > rust), and the source of its updating can be dialects ( outback, new settler), jargons ( steep), vernacular ( youth, squander). Today linguists are talking about liberalizing the norms of the literary language.
Most norms act as an immutable rule: Pronounce it just like that! Change the word just like that! Such norms are called mandatory. For example: dosat g, go. But at a certain point in the development of language, the same linguistic phenomenon two ways of expression permitted by the culture of speech may appear - these are variant norm. For example: ms thinking-thoughte nie, [d "]dekan - [d] decan, tea - tea, drips - drips, notify - notify, artificial - artificial, shutter - shutter, reception - acceptance, heating - heating, concentrate - concentrate, flood - flood, mischief - play pranks, full of courage - full of courage, wait for the train - wait for the train, capable of anything - capable of anything, two bright rooms - two bright rooms.
Outside literary norm there are professional, colloquial and outdated options.
Thus, the relationship between the norm and the option can be as follows:
a) the norm is mandatory, and the option is prohibited (it is of a professional, vernacular or outdated nature);
b) the norm is mandatory, and the option is acceptable (usually colloquial);
c) the norm is variant: both options are equal.
Each language level has its own norms:
pronunciation (orthoepic) norm: svi[te]r(not sw[t"e]r);
lexical norm: princess - daughter of a prince(and not the prince's wife);
derivational: pedestal(and not “plinth”), wealth(not “wealth”);
morphological norm: a lot of towels(not “towels”);
syntactic norm: pay for travel(and not “pay for travel”), etc.;
spelling norm: ToO rowa,N Ovosibirsk;
punctuation : Not knowing the ford, don't stick your nose into the water;
stylistic norm - rules of consistency of style, rules of use of words, grammatical forms and syntactic constructions taking into account their stylistic coloring. Here is an example of a violation stylistic norm L.V. Shcherba quotes: If someone in a serious book writes “phagocytes gobble up microbes,” it will be stupid and inappropriate.
Compliance is the first and foremost a clear sign speech culture. Failure to comply with norms is always an obstacle to communication, sometimes significant. The punishment for violating the norm may be the assessment of the speaker (or writer) as an uncultured, uneducated person, and therefore unlikely decent communication. On the other hand, if the speaker himself is aware of his ignorance, this can lead to a drop in self-esteem: “I’d better keep quiet, otherwise they’ll laugh.”
If the norm is learned, it begins new round in the development of speech culture. Here's how L.V. Shcherba wrote about it:
“When a person’s sense of the norm is cultivated, then he begins to feel all the charm of justified deviations from it by various good writers.”
WEALTH OF SPEECH
Richness of speech- this is the variety of speech and language used. For rich speech characterized by richness of vocabulary, intonation and diversity grammatical structures: parts of speech, their forms, types of sentences, etc.
Speech portrait personality is largely determined by the richness of its vocabulary. It is this that ensures freedom of speech behavior and the ability to fully understand incoming information. Let's compare the numbers: A. S. Pushkin had more than 21 thousand words in circulation, and the famous heroine of Ilf and Petrov, Ellochka Shchukina, “easily and freely managed with thirty.”
At the turn of the century, we observe, on the one hand, an active enrichment of the dictionary due to borrowings and non-literary units, and on the other, an impoverishment of certain fragments of the dictionary due to a change in the range of reading.
The richness of the vocabulary gives the speaker and opportunity for the writer indicate your speech preferences, demonstrate your level of education. Thus, actress T. Okunevskaya writes in her memoirs: “Recently I specifically called my philologist friends: “Tell me how to replace the word “party "? And they calmly answer me: “This is a new word of the twentieth century that cannot be replaced.” Now, when I call a friend, I say: “I’m going to...rout “I hate these idiotic “parties”, they take away life.”
The grammatical structure of the language is also rich, flexible and expressive. With the help of prefixes, suffixes and the postfix -sya, it is possible to create a large number of specific forms of the verb based on one root. For example: When the tincture was steeped, I insisted that it was time to instruct the workers on how to place a funnel on a bottle (V. Bryusov).
SPEECH ACCURACY
Speech Accuracy– communicative quality speech, which arises on the basis of two relationships: speech - reality and speech - thinking. This is the correspondence of speech to reality and the author’s thoughts, the correct selection of linguistic means to adequately reflect reality and one’s own thoughts.
For speech to be accurate, it is necessary: a) to know the subject you are speaking or writing about, b) to know the language, its capabilities, and c) to be able to correlate this knowledge in a specific act of communication. L.N. Tolstoy jokingly remarked: “If I were a king, I would make a law that a writer who uses a word whose meaning he cannot explain will be deprived of the right to write and receive a hundred blows of the rod.”
There are two types of speech accuracy: substantive accuracy (including factual) and communicative (semantic) accuracy.
Knowledge of reality is the first condition for accurate speech, the violation of which leads to factual errors. This actual (subject) accuracy of speech – correspondence of speech to reality. Here is an example of its violation: There are three rounds left in the Browning cylinder.(Browning does not have a drum). Or a phrase from one of the politicians: “Our president makes the hairs in my veins groan.”
We pay particular attention to the accuracy of writers' speech. In 1984, Guy Bechtel and Jean-Claude Carriere's book "The Dictionary of Stupidity" was published in France. Here are some examples from there. "Frowning, she ate her soup without opening her mouth,"- writes E. Zola in “The Mistake of Abbé Mouret.” And here is the phrase by A. Dumas from “The Three Musketeers”: “He spent an hour without breathing.”. The same A. Dumas wrote: "Aaah!" - Don Manuel cried in Portuguese". Probably this word sounds different in Russian?
Communicative accuracy of speech associated with the choice from a number of possible one word corresponding to the communication situation. It reflects the “speech-thinking” relationship and manifests itself in the following types of errors:
Mixing words that are similar in sound or meaning: “Katerina jumped from a cliff into the Volga”- it’s better to “rush.” Entrust us with our worries - we will reduce your time!- it’s better to “save.” The Commission was faced with the factor illegal sale alcoholic drinks– it is necessary: “fact”. Even I, an inveterate Muscovite, get confused in these routes– you need: “indigenous”.
Non-specificity - the use of a generic concept instead of a specific one, their confusion: “Paintings hung on the walls of the office” - better "paintings". Writer K. Fedin advised the young writer: “Be more specific. You have peasants "preparing morning food";
Ambiguity, often associated with incorrect use of pronouns or case forms noun: mother's gift(her or her?); Four machines serve several hundred people(who serves whom?). One of statesmen left the following entry in the guest book on the cruiser "Aurora": "Visited a warship. Made a lasting impression".
BRIEFS OF SPEECH
Brevity of speech- absence unnecessary words. verbosity, or speech redundancy, indicates not only stylistic negligence, it indicates more deep reasons:
Idle talk due to lack of thoughts;
Vagueness, uncertainty of the author’s ideas about the subject of speech;
Insufficient vocabulary, causing the use of many words instead of the right one.
Verbosity leads to two types of speech errors:
pleonasm and tautology: Thirty builders gathered;
Identity of meaning of two words: At the second site, two electric furnaces simultaneously failed.
SPEECH ACCESSIBILITY
Availability (clarity) of speech– correspondence of speech (its content, structure, speech design) level of understanding of the addressee.
According to the observation of Yu. M. Lotman, “the relationship between the text and the audience is characterized by mutual activity: the text seeks to liken the audience to itself, to impose its own system of codes on it, and the audience responds in kind. The text, as it were, includes the image of “its” ideal audience, and the audience – “its” text.”
But accessibility also has its limits: one must maintain a sense of proportion in order to avoid the opposite mistake associated with the simplification and primitiveness of the statement.
PUREITY OF SPEECH
Barbarisms- included in speech unnecessarily foreign words and expressions not fully mastered by the language.
Kirill Sergeevich Gorbachevich writes: “The invasion of imported words leads to the fact that... the bygone “French-Nizhny Novgorod slang” is replaced by “American-Rostov slang” that belittles national dignity. How are you? today we hear: Are you okay?
Vulgarisms- words and expressions that offend moral sense person. Their emergence, according to researchers, was unlikely to be associated with the desire to insult dignity. They fell into the category of rude and vulgar during the period of formation and strengthening of Christian traditions.
Foul language is not as harmless as some of its defenders make it out to be. Firstly, the close relationship between human thinking and speech determines that the content of an amateur’s thinking obscene language becomes more and more subject to a special form of expression of thoughts. Secondly, such a person may suffer communicative failure when communicating with people who are not inclined to use swear words. Thirdly, researchers note the relationship between the use of vulgar language and a person’s loss of health: swearing insults, creates emotional discomfort, and depresses the psyche normal person, which means it destroys its physiology.
Violates purity literary speech“a huge poisonous infusion - camp jargon.” The danger, according to Oleg Pavlov, is that “the criminal world is trying to really control our consciousness, society, and the most vital interest of this world is the destruction of the cultural layer, because only uncultured people can be controlled by all these thieves in law, authorities and godfathers. But having spoken to them with concepts, drunk on this thieves’ poison, we will not be “brothers” for them and not even people, but “frayers”, “sixes”.
RELEVANCE OF SPEECH
Relevance- use in speech of linguistic means appropriate specific situation communication that meets the goals and conditions of communication. According to A.S. Pushkin, this is the observance of a “sense of proportionality and conformity.”
Distinguish between appropriateness situational And text . Situational appropriateness/inappropriateness is assessed based on each component communicative situation and their complex. A classic recommendation for maintaining situational appropriateness: "In the house of a hanged man they don't talk about rope"- relates to the subject of speech. Considering the conditions of communication, it is inappropriate, for example, to discuss important issues “on the go” in a crowded place.
Textual appropriateness is part of situational appropriateness and is associated with the use of specific speech means in the text. This side of speech is studied by a special science - stylistics. Stylistic appropriateness is the correspondence of the used linguistic means to the chosen functional style and style specific text depending on the communication situation. For example, a violation of correctness in a phrase may be appropriate if it is perceived as language game in casual communication: Among me educational work late to carry out.
Most stylistic errors are associated with the inappropriate use of stylistically colored means conversational style (“First, I’ll tell you a little about the topic.”) or book words ("A new one has begun academic year, and the era of study has come for you"). Special view stylistic error– inappropriate use of clerical cliches – clericalisms. Here's how Zinovy Samoilovich Paperny played up this disease in a parody:
“Pushkin’s demonstration of a fisherman’s capture of a goldfish, which promised, on condition of its release into the sea, a significant payoff, which was not used by the old man at first, has important. No less important is the old woman’s reaction to the old man’s message to her about his use of the fish, the old woman’s use of a number of vulgarisms directed at the old man and forcing him to meet again with the fish, dedicated to the issue of the old trough.”
PURPOSE OF SPEECH
Modern linguistics(E. N. Shiryaev) puts forward as the main criterion for assessing speech culture expediency– all selected language means are assessed by how much they help solve the main problem communicative task. A person who has a culture of speech is able to make a choice and organize linguistic means in an utterance in such a way as to ensure greatest effect in achieving the set communicative goal in any communication situation. But, unfortunately, the author of the statement himself does not always understand his goal. Here is an example from the speech of V. S. Chernomyrdin: “We go to some kind of wishlist, as they say, I’m sorry, someone wants more - well, that doesn’t happen here...”
LOGICALITY OF SPEECH
A person who wants to learn to speak and write logically must first learn to think logically.
Among the many logical laws, four main ones can be distinguished: the laws of identity, non-contradiction, excluded middle and sufficient reason.
Law of Identity states: a thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself, have a stable content, so that the concept does not change.
According to law of contradiction two opposing propositions cannot be true at the same time.
Law of the excluded middle: two opposite propositions cannot be false at the same time, one of them is true.
By law of sufficient reason Every thought is recognized as true if it has sufficient grounds and evidence.
Logic of speech- this is the correspondence of the structure of speech to the laws of logic and thinking.
Logical conditions:
Mastering the logic of reasoning - “the norms or principles of correct reasoning” in the search for new truth;
Knowledge of linguistic means that organize correct and logical speech.
Violation of the laws of logic leads to logical errors, alogisms.
Alogism- logical type speech error, consisting of a violation of logical connections in the text, logical breaks, unsubstantiated, incorrect conclusions. There are alogisms in oral and writing. An example from the speech of V. S. Chernomyrdin: “My specialty and life took place in an atmosphere of oil and gas.”
EXPRESSIVE SPEECH
Expressiveness of speech- her ability to express thoughts and feelings, attract the attention and interest of the addressee, using special stylistic techniques: trails And figures.
Expressiveness of speech depends on different conditions: independence of a person’s thinking, his indifference, interest in what is being said, intention to speak (or write) expressively and, of course, good knowledge language and its expressive capabilities. Expressiveness usually implies originality, surprise and reflects creativity person.
According to researchers (E. Goffman), the speaker in communication acts simultaneously in three roles: “principal” - whose position is expressed in the statement; author - creator of the text; animator - the one who pronounces the statement. Therefore, expressiveness must be inherent in the idea, her registration And presentation listeners.
Researchers talk about expressiveness informational associated with the effect on the mind, and emotional expressiveness that appeals to the senses. The expressiveness of the content is ensured by the freshness of information, the novelty of ideas, the closeness of the author’s thoughts to the ideas of the listeners, etc. But man is not only a rational being ( Homo sapiens), but also a playing creature (Homo ludens). Language provides the widest field for play, which creates the emotional expressiveness of speech.
Texts of all functional styles may have expressiveness, but the means of creating it will differ. Yes, expressiveness scientific speech is based on open logic and accuracy of word usage, which does not exclude the impact on emotional sphere consciousness of the addressee.
Expressiveness is created language means different levels language: phonetic, lexical, morphological, etc.
Expressiveness oral speech
In progress oral communication special role play non-verbal means: gesture, facial expressions, posture - supporting the expressiveness of spoken speech. G. Gaillard wrote: “An expressive look, a well-made body movement are sometimes worth much more than all the speeches.”
Sounding speech has special means of expressiveness, these are the tone and timbre of the voice, the rhythmic and melodic structure of the phrase, the sound organization of speech using special methods.
Sound recording– repetition of sounds that create auditory impressions of the depicted phenomenon. An unusual example sound recording is found in the memoirs of Lily Brik: “Shklovsky wrote aphorisms: "Irritation with humanity is drip-dropping drop by drop." Depending on which sounds are repeated, assonance and alliteration are distinguished.
Assonance(from lat. assonare- sound in harmony) – repetition of vowel sounds like stylistic device:
Melo, melo all the timee
th earthe
On Sune
beforee
ly.
Mountain Candlee
la on the tablee
,
Mountain Candlee
la...
(B. Pasternak)
Alliteration(from lat. al - to, at + litera - letter) - repetition of identical consonant sounds or sound combinations as a stylistic device. Sh AndPen yePen clean glasses andn atnsh Apl amday blue(A.S. Pushkin).
Anyone who is interested in improving their speech must perfectly know the entire semantic scope of the word, all its meanings. Must be able to correlate and contrast not only words connected by various semantic, thematic, associative relationships, but also different meanings of one word.
Our language is very rich in synonyms, that is, words that are close in meaning. Each of the synonyms, differing in the shade of meaning, highlights one particular feature of the quality of an object, phenomenon or some sign of action, and together the synonyms contribute to a deeper, more comprehensive description of the phenomena of reality.
Synonyms make speech more colorful, more varied, help avoid repetition of the same words, and allow you to express thoughts figuratively. For example, the concept of large quantities something is conveyed by words: a lot (of apples), darkness (of books), an abyss (of work), a gap (of affairs), a cloud (of mosquitoes), a swarm of (thoughts), an ocean (of smiles), a sea (of flags), a forest (of pipes) . All of the above words, with the exception of the word many, create figurative representation about a large number.
There are many words in the Russian language that convey the speaker’s positive or negative attitude towards the subject of thought, that is, they have expression. Thus, the words bliss, luxurious, magnificent, fearless, charm contain positive expression, and the words chatterbox, klutz, stupidity, daub are characterized by negative expression.
The grammatical structure of the language is also rich, flexible and expressive. Let's take the species category as an example. Unlike the category of time, which indicates the relationship of the action to the moment of speech, the category of type indicates the manner in which the action occurs. So, in the species pair read read verbs characterize the action in different ways. The verb read (perfect form) indicates an action that has exhausted itself and cannot continue. The verb read (imperfect form) indicates an action that is not limited.
It should be remembered: gray speech filled with verbal cliches<- вызывает в сознании слушающих необходимых ассоциаций. Вряд "in человек, злоупотребляющий стандартными выражениями, может и.шолновать слушателей, убедить их в чем-то, воздействовать на них. Шаблонная, избитая фраза отскакивает от слушателей, не дает им возможности вникнуть в суть высказывания.
In addition, poor, linguistically poor speech is perceived as a negative characteristic of a person, indicating his superficial knowledge, low speech culture, and insufficient vocabulary. But the main thing: poverty, dullness, monotony of language are associated with poverty, dullness and unoriginality of thought.
Conclusion
Man is a social being, and the leading means of communication is speech. I think, therefore I exist, wrote Descartes. But thought without speech structure is ethereal. The main function of speech is the transformation of a person’s internal image, which arose as a result of subconscious internal or spiritual work, into the consciousness of the listener. To accurately reproduce an image, expressive speech is necessary, thanks to which the reproduced information breaks through the prism of a person’s subjective assessment and becomes an integral part of his inner world. The expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader.
A person meeting the following conditions can speak expressively:
independence of thinking; indifference; good knowledge of the language and its expressive capabilities; good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles; systematic and conscious training of speech skills.
Expressive means of language are sometimes reduced to the so-called expressive and figurative, i.e., tropes and figures, but expressiveness can be enhanced by units of language at all its levels, from sounds to syntax and styles. The expressive capabilities of a word are supported and strengthened by the actualization of its semantics. The actualization of the semantics of a word in poetry is usually associated with what can be called the associativity of figurative thinking. Other expressive means of speech also operate on the principles of association. The syntax of language has no less potential than vocabulary to enhance and weaken the expressiveness of speech.
Just the ability to find your own expressive and emotional words will not make your speech come alive if you do not know the secrets of expressive syntax. After all, you need to be able to construct words from them into sentences that would allow you to use a variety of intonations and skillfully place pauses.
List of used literature
- Vasilyeva A. N. Fundamentals of speech culture. M., 1990
- Vvedenskaya L. A., Pavlova L. G. Business rhetoric. - Rostov-on-Don: MarT Publishing Center, 2001
- Vvedenskaya L. A., Pavlova L. G., Culture and the art of speech. Modern rhetoric. - Rostov-on-Don: Fenik Publishing House
Expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, affects not only the mind, but also the feelings and imagination of listeners.
It should be borne in mind that in science there is no single definition of the concept of “expressiveness of speech.” There are different approaches to describing this quality of speech. Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of language at all levels. Therefore, in the literature expressiveness is distinguished: pronunciation, accentology, lexical, word-formation, morphological, syntactic, intonation, stylistic.
2. Name and analyze the norms of literary language
Linguistic norms (standards of literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:
Compliance with the structure of the language;
Massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers;
Public approval and recognition.
Linguistic norms were not invented by philologists; they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed administratively. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them.
The main sources of language norms include:
works of classical writers;
works of modern writers who continue classical traditions;
media publications;
common modern usage;
linguistic research data.
The characteristic features of language norms are:
relative stability;
prevalence;
common use;
universal obligatory;
correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.
A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication.
The normalization of speech is its compliance with the literary and linguistic ideal.
“The language system, being in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it... New things in speech experience that do not fit into the framework of the language system, but that work and are functionally appropriate, lead to restructuring in it, and each successive state of the language system serves as a basis for comparison during subsequent processing of speech experience. Thus, language develops and changes in the process of speech functioning, and at each stage of this development the language system inevitably contains elements that have not completed the process of change. Therefore, various fluctuations and variations are inevitable in any language."
The constant development of language leads to changes in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. So, for example, previously the words snack bar, toy, bakery, everyday, deliberately, decently, creamy, apple, scrambled eggs were pronounced with the sounds [shn]. At the end of the 20th century. such pronunciation as the only (strictly obligatory) norm was preserved only in the words deliberately, scrambled eggs. In the words bakery, along with the traditional pronunciation [shn], the new pronunciation [chn] is recognized as acceptable. In the words everyday, apple, the new pronunciation is recommended as the main option, and the old one is allowed as a possible option. In the word creamy, the pronunciation [shn] is recognized as an acceptable, but outdated option, and in the words snack bar, toy, the new pronunciation [chn] has become the only possible normative option.
This example clearly shows that in the history of a literary language the following are possible:
Maintaining the old norm;
Competition between two options, in which dictionaries recommend the traditional option;
Competition of options, in which dictionaries recommend a new option;
Approval of the new option as the only normative one.
In the history of a language, not only orthoepic norms change, but also all other norms.
An example of a change in lexical norm is the words diploma student and applicant. At the beginning of the 20th century. the word diplomant denoted a student completing a thesis work, and the word diplomanik was a colloquial (stylistic) version of the word diplomant. In the literary norm of the 50-60s. a distinction was made in the use of these words: the word diplomatnik began to be called a student during the period of preparation and defense of the thesis (it lost the stylistic connotation of a colloquial word), and the word diplomant began to be used to name the winners of competitions, shows, competitions, marked with a winner’s diploma.
The word applicant was used to designate those who graduated from high school and those who entered university, since both of these concepts in many cases refer to the same person. In the middle of the 20th century. For those graduating from high school, the word graduate was assigned, and the word applicant in this meaning fell out of use.
Grammar norms also change in the language. In the literature of the 19th century. and in colloquial speech of that time the words dahlia, hall, piano were used - these were feminine words. In modern Russian, the norm is to use these words as masculine words - dahlia, hall, piano.
An example of a change in stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialectal and colloquial words, for example, bully, whiner, background, pandemonium, hype.
Each new generation relies on existing texts, stable figures of speech, and ways of expressing thoughts. From the language of these texts, it selects the most appropriate words and figures of speech, takes what is relevant for itself from what was developed by previous generations, bringing in its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations are abandoning what seems archaic, not in tune with the new manner of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitudes towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new angles of understanding.
In every historical era, the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions.
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;
2) norms of written speech;
3) norms of oral speech.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
Lexical norms;
Grammar rules;
Stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
Spelling standards;
Punctuation standards.
Applicable only to oral speech:
Pronunciation standards;
Stress norms;
Intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types (examples of errors from the essays of applicants):
Incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion of paronyms, inaccurate choice of synonym, incorrect choice of a semantic field unit
(skeletal type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
Violation of norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, has gone through all stages of human development);
The contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional and evaluative connotations of the word (Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an enormous contribution to the development of Russia);
Use of anachronisms
(Lomonosov entered the institute, Raskolnikov studied at the university);
Mixing linguistic and cultural realities
(Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
Incorrect use of phraseological units (Youth was flowing out of him; We must bring him out into fresh water).
Grammatical norms are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context (analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear the following phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation of oral speech. Pronunciation norms of the Russian language are determined primarily by the following phonetic factors:
Stunning of voiced consonants at the end of words: du[p], bread[p].
Reduction of unstressed vowels (changes in sound quality)
Assimilation is the likening of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness at the junction of morphemes: only voiced consonants are pronounced before voiced consonants, only voiceless ones are pronounced before deaf ones: furnish - o[p]post, run away - [h]escape, fry - and [z]roast.
The loss of some sounds in combinations of consonants: stn, zdn, stl, lnts: holiday - pra[zn]ik, sun - so[nc]e.
Compliance with spelling norms is an important part of speech culture, because their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents.
Stress norms (accentological norms). Accentology studies the functions of stress. Stress is the emphasis on one of the syllables in a word using various phonetic means (raising the tone, strengthening the voice, loudness, duration). The peculiarity of the stress is its diversity and mobility. The diversity is manifested in the fact that in different words the stress falls on different syllables: invent - invent. The mobility of stress is revealed in the fact that in one word, when its form changes, the stress can move from one syllable to another: earth (I.p.) - earth (V.p.)
The spelling dictionary fixes the norms of pronunciation and stress. This dictionary mainly includes the following words:
Pronunciation that cannot be clearly established based on their written form;
Having a movable stress in grammatical forms;
Forming some grammatical forms in non-standard ways;
Words that experience stress fluctuations throughout the entire system of forms or in individual forms.
The dictionary introduces a scale of normativity: some options are considered equal, in other cases one of the options is considered basic and the other acceptable. The dictionary also gives marks indicating the variant of pronunciation of the word in poetic and professional speech.
The following main phenomena are reflected in pronunciation marks:
Softening of consonants, i.e. soft pronunciation of consonants under the influence of subsequent soft consonants, for example: review, -i;
Changes occurring in consonant clusters, such as pronunciation of stn as [sn] (local);
Possible pronunciation of one consonant sound (hard or soft) in place of two identical letters, for example: apparatus, -a [n]; effect, -a [f];
Firm pronunciation of consonants followed by the vowel e in place of spelling combinations with e in words of foreign origin, for example hotel, -я [te];
Lack of reduction in words of foreign origin, i.e. pronunciation of unstressed vowel sounds in place of the letters o, e, a, which does not correspond to the rules of reading, for example: bonton, -a [bo]; nocturne, -a [faculty. But];
Peculiarities in the pronunciation of consonants associated with syllable separation in words with secondary stress, for example, head of the laboratory [zaf/l], neskl. m, f.
3. Define the concepts “homonym”, “homophone”, “paronym”. Give examples of the use of these concepts
Homonyms(ancient Greek ὁμός - identical + ὄνομα - name) - language units different in meaning, but identical in spelling (words, morphemes, etc.).
Complete (absolute) homonyms are homonyms in which the entire system of forms coincides. For example, outfit (clothing) - outfit (order), forge (blacksmith) - forge (wind instrument).
Partial homonyms- homonyms in which not all forms coincide. For example, weasel (animal) and caress (show of tenderness) diverge in the genitive plural form (weasels - caresses).
Grammatical homonyms, or homoforms, are words that coincide only in certain forms (of the same part of speech or different parts of speech). For example, the numeral three and the verb three coincide only in two forms (to three - we are three).
Homophones- words that sound the same, but have different meanings. (That is, the spelling is not important.) Homophones, phonetic ambiguity, phonetic homonyms (Greek ὁμός - same + φωνή - sound) - words that sound the same, but are spelled differently and have different meanings. Examples in Russian: threshold - vice - park, meadow - onion, fruit - raft, carcass - carcass, case - you will fall, ball - point, inert - bone, betray - give, emit - imitate.
There are two main sources of homophony in Russian:
the phenomenon of deafening of consonants at the end of words and before another consonant sound,
reduction of vowels in unstressed position.
Homographs are words that have the same spelling but different meanings. (That is, the sound is not important.) Homographs (from ancient Greek ὁμός - “same” and γράφω - “I write”) are words that are the same in spelling, but differ in pronunciation (in Russian, most often due to differences in stress).
shore - shore (dots above e) shore - shore greater - greater
bor - bor barrel - barrel armor - armor (close in meaning)
storms - storms bucket - bucket (dots over e) crown - crown
on horseback - on horseback news - news wine - wine raven - raven
crow - crow gate - gate gate - gate in connection - in connection
come out - come out carnation - carnation pharynx - pharynx;
sip - sip grief - grief (the last one is church)
Gentlemen - gentlemen ready (tv.p. plural from goth) - ready
count - count pennies - pennies (money - very cheap)
dear - dear perfume - perfume soul - soul
Paronymy(from ancient Greek παρα- - prefix with the meaning of contiguity, ὄνομα - “name”) - partial sound similarity of words with their semantic difference (complete or partial).
Also, the term “paronymy” is usually used to refer to a phenomenon in speech when two words that sound somewhat similar, but have different meanings, are mistakenly used one instead of the other. For example, using the word “addressee” instead of “addressee”; "boatswain" instead of "pilot"; “flint” instead of “silicon” is a paronymy, and the words that make up such pairs are called paronyms.
The use of one word instead of another, similar-sounding one, is explained by insufficient knowledge of the meaning of one of the words or even both, the incompetence of the speaker (writer) in the field of human activity (science, technology, art, craft) from which the word was taken.
Among paronyms, nouns occupy a significant place:
verification - verification; ignorant - ignorant; subscription - subscriber;
weapon - weapon; heat - heat; engine - mover;
pragmatism - prognathism; guarantor - guarantee.
There are also adjectives: hot - intoxicating; defective - defective; cruel - tough; godfather (procession) - godfather (father); untouchable - untouchable; hidden (about a thing) - secretive (about a person); spectacular - effective; linguistic - linguistic;
And also adverbs: harshly - cruelly; full - satisfying; irresponsible - irresponsible.
Verbs: sleep - sleep - sleep; hear - listen; fall asleep - fall asleep.
Send (incorrect use of the verb let's go) - send (send) - send (from send).
Paronyms can have the same root: dress - put on; human - humane; pay - pay - pay.
References
Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu. Russian language and speech culture. - M.: Phoenix, 2011.
Bylkova S.V., Makhnitskaya E.Yu. Speech culture. Flint style. - M.: Nauka, 2009.
Maksimov V.I., Kazarinova N.V., Sretenskaya L.V. and others. Russian language and speech culture. Workshop. - M.: Gardariki, 2008.
Ganapolskaya E., Khokhlova A. Russian language and culture of speech. Seventeen practical lessons. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010.
Pakhnova T.M. Russian language. Complex work with text. - M.: Iris-press, 2009.
