Society is such a complex object that science alone cannot study it. Only by combining the efforts of many sciences can we fully and consistently describe and study the most complex education, which only exists in this world, human society. The totality of all sciences that study society as a whole is called social studies. These include philosophy, history, sociology, economics, political science, psychology and social psychology, anthropology and cultural studies. This basic sciences, consisting of many subdisciplines, sections, directions, scientific schools.
Social science, having emerged later than many other sciences, incorporates their concepts and specific results, statistics, tabular data, graphs and conceptual diagrams, and theoretical categories.
The entire set of sciences related to social science is divided into two types - social And humanitarian.
If the social sciences are the sciences of human behavior, then the humanities are the sciences of the spirit. You can say it differently, the subject social sciences society is the subject humanities- culture. The main subject of social sciences is study of human behavior.
Sociology, psychology, social psychology, economics, political science, as well as anthropology and ethnography (the science of peoples) belong to social sciences . They have a lot in common, they are closely related and form a kind of scientific union. Adjacent to it is a group of other related disciplines: philosophy, history, art history, cultural studies, literary studies. They are classified as humanitarian knowledge.
Since representatives of neighboring sciences constantly communicate and enrich each other with new knowledge, the boundaries between social philosophy, social psychology, economics, sociology and anthropology can be considered very conditional. At their intersection, interdisciplinary sciences are constantly emerging, for example, social anthropology appeared at the intersection of sociology and anthropology, and at the intersection of economics and psychology - economic psychology. In addition, there are such integrative disciplines as legal anthropology, sociology of law, economic sociology, cultural anthropology, psychological and economic anthropology, historical sociology.
Let's get acquainted more thoroughly with the specifics of the leading social sciences:
Economy– a science that studies the principles of organization economic activity people, relations of production, exchange, distribution and consumption that are formed in every society, formulates the basis for the rational behavior of the producer and consumer of goods. Economics also studies the behavior of large masses of people in a market situation. In small and large - in public and privacy- people cannot take a single step without affecting economic relations. When negotiating a job, buying goods on the market, counting our income and expenses, demanding payment of wages, and even going on a visit, we - directly or indirectly - take into account the principles of economy.
Sociology– a science that studies relationships that arise between groups and communities of people, the nature of the structure of society, problems social inequality and principles of social conflict resolution.
Political science- a science that studies the phenomenon of power, the specifics social management, relations arising in the process of carrying out government activities.
Psychology- the science of patterns, mechanism and facts mental life humans and animals. The main theme of psychological thought in antiquity and the Middle Ages is the problem of the soul. Psychologists study stable and repetitive behavior in individual behavior. The focus is on problems of perception, memory, thinking, learning and development human personality. IN modern psychology many branches of knowledge, including psychophysiology, zoopsychology and comparative psychology, social psychology, child psychology and educational psychology, developmental psychology, labor psychology, creativity psychology, medical psychology etc.
Anthropology - science of human origin and evolution, education human races and about normal variations physical structure person. She studies primitive tribes that have survived today from primitive times in the lost corners of the planet: their customs, traditions, culture, and behavior patterns.
Social psychology studies small group (family, group of friends, sports team). Social psychology is a frontier discipline. She was formed at the intersection of sociology and psychology, taking on tasks that her parents were unable to solve. It turned out that a large society does not directly influence the individual, but through an intermediary - small groups. This world of friends, acquaintances and relatives closest to a person plays an exceptional role in our lives. We generally live in small, not big worlds- in a specific house, in a specific family, in a specific company, etc. The small world sometimes influences us even more than the big one. That is why science appeared, which took it closely and very seriously.
Story- one of the most important sciences in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge. The object of its study is man, his activities throughout existence human civilization. The word "history" Greek origin and means “research”, “search”. Some scholars believed that the object of studying history is the past. The famous French historian M. Blok categorically objected to this. “The very idea that the past as such can be an object of science is absurd.”
Emergence historical science dates back to the times of ancient civilizations. The "father of history" is considered to be ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who compiled a work dedicated to the Greco-Persian wars. However, this is hardly fair, since Herodotus used not so much historical data as legends, legends and myths. And his work cannot be considered completely reliable. Significantly more reasons considered the fathers of history by Thucydides, Polybius, Arrian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Ammianus Marcellinus. These ancient historians used documents, their own observations, and eyewitness accounts to describe events. All ancient peoples considered themselves historiographers and revered history as a teacher of life. Polybius wrote: “lessons drawn from history most surely lead to enlightenment and prepare us for engaging in public affairs; the story of the trials of other people is the most intelligible or the only teacher that teaches us to courageously endure the vicissitudes of fate.”
And although, over time, people began to doubt that history could teach subsequent generations not to repeat the mistakes of previous ones, the importance of studying history was not disputed. The most famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote in his reflections on history: “History teaches nothing, but only punishes for ignorance of the lessons.”
Culturology I am primarily interested in the world of art - painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, forms of entertainment and mass spectacles, institutions of education and science. The subjects of cultural creativity are a) individuals, b) small groups, c) large groups. In this sense, cultural studies covers all types of associations of people, but only to the extent that it concerns the creation of cultural values.
Demography studies population - the entire multitude of people who make up human society. Demography is primarily interested in how they reproduce, how long they live, why and in what quantity they die, where they move large masses people. She looks at man partly as a natural, partly as a social being. All living things are born, die and reproduce. These processes are influenced primarily by biological laws. For example, science has proven that a person cannot live more than 110-115 years. That's his way biological resource. However, the vast majority of people live to be 60-70 years old. But this is today, and two hundred years ago average duration life did not exceed 30-40 years. Even today, people in poor and underdeveloped countries live less than in rich and highly developed countries. In humans, life expectancy is determined both by biological and hereditary characteristics, and social conditions(life, work, rest, food).
3.7 . Social and humanitarian knowledge
Social cognition- this is knowledge of society. Understanding society is a very complex process for a number of reasons.
1. Society is the most complex of the objects of knowledge. IN public life all events and phenomena are so complex and diverse, so different from each other and so intricately intertwined that it is very difficult to detect certain patterns in it.
2. In social cognition, not only material (as in natural science), but also ideal, spiritual relationships are studied. These relationships are much more complex, diverse and contradictory than connections in nature.
3. In social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition: people create their own history, and they also know it.
Speaking of specifics social cognition, extremes should be avoided. On the one hand, it is impossible to explain the reasons for Russia’s historical lag using Einstein’s theory of relativity. On the other hand, one cannot assert that all the methods by which nature is studied are unsuitable for social science.
Primary and elementary method knowledge is observation. But it differs from the observation that is used in natural science when observing the stars. In social science, cognition concerns animate objects endowed with consciousness. And if, for example, the stars, even after many years of observation of them, remain completely unperturbed in relation to the observer and his intentions, then in public life everything is different. As a rule, a reverse reaction is detected on the part of the object being studied, something that makes observation impossible from the very beginning, or interrupts it somewhere in the middle, or introduces such interference into it that significantly distorts the results of the study. Therefore, non-participant observation in social science does not provide sufficiently reliable results. Another method is needed, which is called participant observation. It is carried out not from the outside, not from the outside in relation to the object being studied ( social group), but from within it.
For all its significance and necessity, observation in social science demonstrates the same fundamental shortcomings as in other sciences. While observing, we cannot change the object in the direction that interests us, regulate the conditions and course of the process being studied, or reproduce it as many times as required to complete the observation. Significant shortcomings of observation are largely overcome in experiment.
The experiment is active and transformative. In an experiment we interfere with the natural course of events. According to V.A. Stoff, an experiment can be defined as a type of activity undertaken in order to scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective patterns and consisting in influencing the object (process) under study through special tools and instruments. Thanks to the experiment, it is possible to: 1) isolate the object under study from the influence of side, insignificant phenomena that obscure its essence and study it in its “pure” form; 2) repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; 3) systematically change, vary, combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result..
Social experiment has a number of significant features.
1. The social experiment is of a concrete historical nature. Experiments in the field of physics, chemistry, biology can be repeated in different eras, in different countries, because the laws of the development of nature do not depend on the form and type industrial relations, neither from national and historical features. Social experiments aimed at transforming the economy, the national-state structure, the education system, etc., can lead to various historical eras, in different countries not only different, but also directly opposite results.
2. The object of a social experiment has a much lesser degree of isolation from similar objects remaining outside the experiment and from all the influences of a given society as a whole. Reliable isolating devices such as vacuum pumps, protective screens etc. used in the process physical experiment. This means that a social experiment cannot be carried out with a sufficient degree of approximation to “pure conditions”.
3. A social experiment places increased demands on compliance with “safety precautions” during its implementation compared to natural science experiments, where even experiments carried out by trial and error are acceptable. A social experiment at any point in its course constantly has a direct impact on well-being, well-being, physical and mental health people involved in the "experimental" group. Underestimation of any detail, any failure during the experiment can have a detrimental effect on people and in no way good intentions it is impossible to justify this to its organizers.
4. A social experiment may not be conducted for the purpose of directly obtaining theoretical knowledge. Conducting experiments (experiments) on people is inhumane in the name of any theory. A social experiment is an ascertaining, confirming experiment.
One of theoretical methods knowledge is historical method research, i.e. a method that identifies significant historical facts and stages of development, which ultimately makes it possible to create a theory of the object and reveal the logic and patterns of its development.
Another method is modeling. Modeling is understood as a method of scientific knowledge in which research is carried out not on the object of interest to us (the original), but on its substitute (analogue), similar to it in certain respects. As in other branches of scientific knowledge, modeling in social science is used when the subject itself is not available for direct study (say, does not yet exist at all, for example, in predictive studies), or this direct study requires enormous costs, or it is impossible due to ethical considerations.
In his goal-setting activities, from which history is formed, man has always strived to comprehend the future. Interest in the future has especially intensified in modern era in connection with the formation of the information and computer society, in connection with those global problems that call into question the very existence of humanity. Foresight came out on top.
Scientific foresight represents such knowledge about the unknown, which is based on already known knowledge about the essence of the phenomena and processes that interest us and about their trends further development. Scientific foresight does not claim absolutely accurate and complete knowledge of the future, or its mandatory reliability: even carefully verified and balanced forecasts are justified only with to a certain extent reliability.
Spiritual life of society
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Classification scientific activity is not so great, if it is divided into those that have axiom confirmation and those that have an “inaccurate” formulation, then there are only two options. Speaking in terms, science is divided into humanitarian and natural sciences. There is also the concept of social sciences, which many citizens do not immediately find an explanation for. Let's figure out how the humanities differ from the social sciences.
Humanities
As already noted, the humanities do not have exact confirmation and postulate. These include: psychology, economics, philosophy, sociology, jurisprudence. Understanding and acquiring new knowledge human nature and the arts are the most important features of the humanities. This is normative knowledge educated person. By deepening science, the settlement of integrity in relation to man and the core of nature is being explored by scientists and professors.
Although quite recently the humanities were limited in the study of social management, now modern science, on the contrary, seeks to solve the problem of social construction social population. The main direction of which today has gained some progress and interest among many humanistic scientists is the study of society and its capabilities in front of technological discoveries, as well as knowledge of social statistics.
Social science
Social sciences, in addition to the humanities listed above, also cover social circle of research- this is history, jurisprudence, linguistics, rhetoric, political science, pedagogy, cultural studies, geography, anthropology. So wide range studies sciences historical stages the past, as well as what may happen in the history of the future. Solves fundamental theorems of social society. This science explores human relationships and attitudes.
Even in the recent past, social sciences had no basis and were considered only from the point of view of necessity in a particular area. Today they are relevant for all segments of society. The theory that people will be able to govern themselves through social statistics and research is becoming popular and being considered.
Similarities between the two sciences
Some sciences such as history, political science and sociology are to some extent harbingers of the future, i.e. Guided by the skills of the historical past and the analysis of the public political mood of the society, political scientists and sociologists can predict an assessment of what may happen in the future. Thus, sociology, history and political science are closely related. A characteristic difference is the fact that political science studies theories, and sociology studies entire social corporations.
Philosophy, political science and psychology have in common common features. All these sciences mainly study social attitudes and human behavior in a given situation. The experience of philosophy advises political scientists on some issues related to the relations of peoples and the role of the state in public welfare. Psychology can also be both a humanitarian and a social science. An opinion about why a person would do this and what motivated him is very appropriate and, to some extent, necessary for the development of the right promising elite.
The sciences that are part of the humanities cannot be standard and isolated by theories alone; they are in demand and embrace the sciences of the social environment. And vice versa - they find common basis in your search.
Difference between humanities and social sciences
If we talk in simple language, then the humanities are aimed at studying man from the point of view of his inner nature: spirituality, morality, culture, ingenuity. In turn, social ones are aimed at studying not only the inner nature of a person, but also his actions in a given situation, his worldview on what is happening in society.
There are several main differences between the humanities and social sciences:
- Abstract concepts that identify signs and properties are oriented in the humanities. For example, an “experienced person”, in in this case It is not the person himself that is considered, but the very experience that he received. Social sciences focus their attention on man and his activities in social society.
- To theoretically navigate the study social development societies, social scientists use proven tools and rules. This is rarely practiced in the humanities.
Social sciences, often called social sciences, study the laws, facts and dependencies of the socio-historical process, as well as the goals, motives and values of man. They differ from art in that they are used to study society. scientific method and standards, including quality and quantitative analysis problems. The result of these studies is the analysis social processes and detecting patterns and repeating events in them.
Social Sciences
The first group includes sciences that provide the most general knowledge about society, first of all, and sociology. Sociology studies society and the laws of its development, the functioning of social communities and the relationships between them. This multi-paradigm science examines social mechanisms as self-sufficient means of regulation social relations. Most of Paradigms are divided into two areas - microsociology and macrosociology.
Sciences about certain areas of social life
This group of social sciences includes economics, political science, ethics and aesthetics. Culturology studies the interaction of cultures in individual and mass consciousness. The object of economic research is economic reality. Because of its latitude this science represents a whole disciplines that differ from each other in the subject matter of study. Economic disciplines include: macro- and econometrics, mathematical methods economics, statistics, industrial and engineering economics, history economic studies and many others.
Ethics is the study of morality and ethics. Metaethics studies the origin and meaning of ethical categories and concepts using logical analysis. Normative ethics is devoted to the search for principles that regulate human behavior and guide his actions.
Sciences about all spheres of social life
These sciences permeate all spheres of public life, these are jurisprudence (jurisprudence) and history. Relying on various sources, the past of humanity. The subject of the study of jurisprudence is law as a socio-political phenomenon, as well as a set of generally binding rules established by the state certain rules behavior. Jurisprudence views the state as an organization of political power that ensures the management of the affairs of the entire society with the help of law and a specially created state apparatus.
Science, as one of the forms of knowledge and explanation of the world, is constantly developing: the number of its branches and directions is steadily growing. This trend is especially clearly demonstrated by the development of social sciences, which are opening up more and more new facets of the life of modern society. What are they? What is the subject of their study? Read about this in more detail in the article.
Social Science
This concept appeared relatively recently. Scientists associate its emergence with the development of science in general, which began in the 16-17th century. It was then that science began to own way development, uniting and incorporating the entire system of pseudo-scientific knowledge that had formed at that time.
It should be noted that social science is complete system scientific knowledge, which at its core contains a number of disciplines. The task of the latter is a comprehensive study of society and its constituent elements.
The rapid development and complexity of this category over the past couple of centuries poses new challenges for science. The emergence of new institutions, increasing complexity public relations and relationships require the introduction of new categories, the establishment of dependencies and patterns, and open new branches and sub-sectors of this type of scientific knowledge.
What is he studying?
The answer to the question of what constitutes the subject of social sciences is already inherent in it itself. This part of scientific knowledge concentrates its cognitive efforts on such complex concept, as a society. Its essence is most fully revealed thanks to the development of sociology.
The latter is quite often presented as a science of society. However, such a broad interpretation of the subject of this discipline does not allow us to get a complete picture of it.
and sociology?
Many researchers of both modern times and past centuries have tried to answer this question. can "boast" a huge amount theories and concepts that explain the essence of the concept of “society”. The latter cannot consist of only one individual; an indispensable condition here is a collection of several beings, which must certainly be in the process of interaction. That is why today scientists imagine society as a kind of “clump” of all kinds of connections and interactions entangling the world of human relations. Select a row distinctive characteristics societies:
- The presence of some social community, reflecting the social side of life, social identity relations and various kinds interactions.
- The presence of regulatory bodies, which sociologists call social institutions, the latter are the most stable connections and relationships. A striking example such an institution is the family.
- A special social space. Territorial categories are not applicable here, since society can go beyond them.
- Self-sufficiency is a characteristic that allows one to distinguish a society from other similar social entities.
Considering the detailed presentation of the main category of sociology, it is possible to expand the concept of it as a science. This is no longer just a science about society, but also an integrated system of knowledge about various social institutions, relationships, communities.
Social sciences study society, forming a diverse understanding of it. Each considers the object from its own side: political science - political, economics - economic, cultural studies - cultural, etc.
Causes
Starting from the 16th century, the development of scientific knowledge became quite dynamic, and by the middle of the 19th century, a process of differentiation was observed in the already separated science. The essence of the latter was that individual branches began to take shape in the mainstream of scientific knowledge. The foundation for their formation and, in fact, the reason for their separation was the identification of an object, subject and research methods. Based on these components, the disciplines were concentrated around two main areas human life: nature and society.
What are the reasons for the separation from scientific knowledge of what is today known as social science? These are, first of all, the changes that took place in society in the 16-17th century. It was then that its formation began in the form in which it was preserved until today. Outdated structures are being replaced by mass, which requires increased attention, since there was a need not only to understand but also to be able to manage them.
Another factor contributing to the emergence of social sciences was active development natural ones, which in some way “provoked” the emergence of the former. It is known that one of characteristic features scientific knowledge of the late 19th century was the so-called naturalistic understanding of society and the processes occurring in it. The peculiarity of this approach was that social scientists tried to explain it within the framework of the categories and methods of the natural sciences. Then sociology appears, which its creator, Auguste Comte, calls social physics. A scientist, studying society, tries to apply natural scientific methods to it. Thus, social science is a system of scientific knowledge that emerged later than the natural one and developed under its direct influence.
Development of social sciences
The rapid development of knowledge about society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was due to the desire to find levers to control it in a rapidly changing world. Natural sciences, failing to explain processes, reveal their inconsistency and limitations. The formation and development of social sciences make it possible to obtain answers to many questions of both the past and the present. New processes and phenomena that take place in the world require new approaches to study, as well as application latest technologies and techniques. All this stimulates the development of both scientific knowledge in general and social sciences in particular.
Considering that the natural sciences became the impetus for the development of social sciences, it is necessary to find out how to distinguish one from the other.
Natural and social sciences: distinctive characteristics
The main difference that makes it possible to classify this or that knowledge into a certain group is, of course, the object of research. In other words, what science focuses on, in this case, are two various areas being.
It is known that the natural sciences arose earlier than the social sciences, and their methods influenced the development of the methodology of the latter. Its development took place in a different cognitive direction - through understanding the processes occurring in society, in contrast to the explanation offered by the natural sciences.
Another feature that emphasizes the differences between natural and social sciences is ensuring the objectivity of the cognition process. In the first case, the scientist is outside the subject of research, observing it “from the outside.” In the second, he himself is often a participant in the processes that take place in society. Here objectivity is ensured by comparison with universal human values and norms: cultural, moral, religious, political and others.
What sciences are considered social?
Let us immediately note that there are some difficulties in determining where to classify this or that science. Modern scientific knowledge gravitates towards the so-called interdisciplinarity, when sciences borrow methods from each other. This is why it is sometimes difficult to classify science into one group or another: both social and natural sciences have a number of characteristics that make them similar.
Since social sciences occurred later than natural sciences, then initial stage During its development, many scientists believed that it was possible to study society and the processes occurring in it using natural scientific methods. A striking example is sociology, which was called social physics. Later, with the development of their own system of methods, the social (social) sciences moved away from the natural sciences.
Another feature that unites these is that each of them acquires knowledge in the same ways, including:
- system of such general scientific methods as observation, modeling, experiment;
- logical methods of cognition: analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, etc.;
- reliance on scientific facts, logic and consistency of judgments, unambiguity of the concepts used and the rigor of their definitions.
Also, both spheres of science have in common the ways in which they differ from other types and forms of knowledge: the validity and systematic nature of the acquired knowledge, their objectivity, etc.
System of scientific knowledge about society
The entire set of sciences that study society is sometimes combined into one, which is called social science. This discipline, being comprehensive, allows you to form general idea about society and the place of the individual in it. It is formed on the basis of knowledge about various things: economics, politics, culture, psychology and others. In other words, social science is an integrated system of social sciences that forms an idea of such a complex and diverse phenomenon as society, the roles and functions of humans in it.
Classification of social sciences
Based on which social sciences relate to any level of knowledge about society or give an idea of almost all spheres of its life, scientists have divided them into several groups:
- the first includes those sciences that give general ideas about society itself, the laws of its development, main components, etc. (sociology, philosophy);
- the second covers those disciplines that study one aspect of society (economics, political science, cultural studies, ethics, etc.);
- The third group includes sciences that permeate all areas of social life (history, jurisprudence).
Sometimes social sciences are divided into two areas: social and humanities. Both of them are closely interconnected, since in one way or another they are related to society. The first characterizes the most general patterns flow social processes, and the second refers to subjective level, which examines a person with his values, motives, goals, intentions, etc.
Thus, we can indicate that social sciences study society in a general, broader aspect, as part material world, as well as narrowly - at the level of the state, nation, family, associations or social groups.
The most famous social sciences
Considering that modern society is a rather complex and diverse phenomenon; it is impossible to study it within the framework of one discipline. This situation can be explained based on the fact that the number of relationships and connections in society today is enormous. We all encounter in our lives such areas as: economics, politics, law, culture, language, history, etc. All this diversity is a clear manifestation of how versatile modern society. That is why we can cite at least 10 social sciences, each of which characterizes one of the aspects of society: sociology, political science, history, economics, jurisprudence, pedagogy, cultural studies, psychology, geography, anthropology.
There is no doubt that the source of basic information about society is sociology. It is she who reveals the essence of this multifaceted object of research. In addition, today political science, which characterizes the political sphere, has become quite famous.
Jurisprudence allows you to learn how to regulate relations in society using rules of conduct enshrined by the state in the form legal norms. And psychology allows you to do this using other mechanisms, studying the psychology of the crowd, group and person.
Thus, each of the 10 social sciences explores society from its own side with the help of own methods research.
Scientific publications publishing social science research
One of the most famous is the journal “Social Sciences and Modernity”. Today this is one of the few publications that allows you to get acquainted with a fairly wide range of different areas modern science about society. There are articles on sociology and history, political science and philosophy, research that raises cultural and psychological issues.
Home distinctive feature publication is the opportunity to post and get acquainted with interdisciplinary research, which are carried out at the intersection of various scientific directions. Today, the globalizing world makes its own demands: a scientist must go beyond the narrow confines of his industry and take into account current trends development of world society as a single organism.
