Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...3
Chapter I. The problem of volitional behavior in preschool children in the psychological and pedagogical literature……………………………………………………….………………...6
1.1. The concept of will in psychology……………………………………………………..6
1.2.Mental characteristics of preschool children………..………………14
1.3. Will in preschoolers…….………………..………………..………..31
Chapter II. Experimental study of the characteristics of volitional behavior in preschool children ………………………………………….………..38
2.1. Program of the ascertaining experiment in the development of volitional qualities…………………………………………………………………………………38
2.2. Analysis of the obtained data……………………………………………………40
Conclusion…………………………………………………………….…………49
Bibliography ………………………………………….…………51
Applications…………………….………………………………………………………………..54
INTRODUCTION
Any human activity is always accompanied by concrete actions, which can be divided into two large groups: voluntary and involuntary. Involuntary actions include the actions of a person in a state of passion, fear, amazement. The main difference between voluntary actions is that they are carried out under the control of consciousness and require certain efforts on the part of a person aimed at achieving a consciously set goal. These efforts are often called volitional regulation, or will.
Understanding will as a real factor of behavior has its own history. In times of antiquity and history, the problem of will was not considered from a position characteristic of its modern understanding. In the ancient world, philosophers believed that the rules of human behavior must correspond to the rational principles of nature and life, the rules of logic. One of the natural interpretations belongs to I.P. Pavlom, who viewed it as the “instinct of freedom” as a manifestation that acts as no less a stimulus for behavior than the instinct of hunger and danger. In recent decades, another concept has been gaining strength and is finding an increasing number of supporters, according to which human behavior is understood as initially active, and the person himself is viewed as endowed with the ability to consciously choose a form of behavior. This point of view is successfully supported by research in the field of physiology conducted by N. A. Bernstein and P. K. Anokhin.
There are other concepts of will. Within the framework of the psychoanalytic concept, at all stages of its evolution from S. Freud to E. Fromm, attempts were repeatedly made to concretize the idea of will as a unique energy of human actions.
Preschool age is a unique and decisive period in the development of a child, when the foundations of personality are laid, will and voluntary behavior are developed, imagination, creativity, and general initiative actively develop, and all these most important qualities are formed not in the process of educational activities, but in main activity preschooler - in the game. Overcoming internal and external obstacles, the child gradually develops strong-willed qualities: purposefulness, determination, independence, initiative, perseverance, endurance, discipline, courage.
Will is one of the most important characteristics personal development. Therefore, teachers and parents should pay significant attention to the formation of this particular personality quality.
The development of the child’s will is closely related to the changes in behavioral motives that occur in preschool age and the formation of subordination of motives. Research into the peculiarities of the formation and development of the volitional sphere in preschool children is necessary to create a more effective educational and educational environment. IN educational psychology, personality psychology, age and differential psychology common problems works of Bozhovich L.I., Vygotsky L.S., Davydov V.V., Kolominsky Ya.L., Ivannikov V.A., Ilyin E.P., Rubinshtein S.L., Smirnova are devoted to the will and volitional regulation of preschool children E.O.
Research in this direction is determined by the importance of preschool age, which is important stage in the formation and development of the volitional sphere of personality.
Purpose of the study: to study the volitional qualities of preschool children
Object of study: emotional-volitional sphere of preschool children
Subject of the study: manifestation of will in older preschoolers.
Research hypothesis : Children 6–7 years old, brought up in the same conditions, have different levels of volitional qualities.
The experimental study was carried out on May 20, 2015 at preschool educational institution No. 58 “Golden Cockerel” in Kirov. The “Pinocchio” group of senior preschool age participated in the experiment. 21 children (11 girls, 10 boys) participated in the experiment. middle age children 6-7 years old.
Chapter I. The problem of volitional behavior in preschoolers in psychological and pedagogical literature
1.1 The concept of will in psychology .
Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome internal and external difficulties when performing purposeful actions and deeds. The main functions of the will are: 1) incentive 2) stabilizing 3) inhibitory. The first function is provided by human activity, encouraging action and creating a certain ordered system - a hierarchy of motives - natural needs in the highest motives associated with the experience of moral, aesthetic and intellectual feelings. The second function is associated with volitional efforts to maintain activity at the proper level when external and internal interference occurs. The third function is manifested in restraining unwanted manifestations of activity. She most often acts in unity with the incentive. A person is able to inhibit the emergence of undesirable motives, the performance of actions, behavior that contradict the idea of a model, a standard, and the implementation of which may call into question or damage the authority of the individual.
It is worth noting the enormous importance of volitional behavior. The most important sign of volitional behavior is overcoming internal and external obstacles. Internal, subjective obstacles include fatigue, desire to have fun, fear, shame, laziness. However, not any action aimed at overcoming an obstacle is called volitional. A person running away from a dog can climb a tall tree, but his actions are not volitional. Depending on how the behavior is explained: by external or internal reasons, external and internal localization of control are distinguished, respectively.
Will makes it possible to consciously control one’s internal mental and external physical actions in the most difficult life situations. Volitional actions play an important role. Volitional actions are consciously controlled actions aimed at overcoming difficulties and obstacles in achieving a set goal. According to the definition of S.R. Rubinstein, “Volitional action is a conscious, purposeful action through which a person achieves the goal set for him, subordinating his impulses to conscious control and changing the surrounding reality in accordance with his plan.” It can be performed by a person on his own initiative and on the instructions of others, for example, students at school and university perform many volitional actions out of necessity. If tasks are perceived without internal approval, contrary to personal desires, then more energy and effort will be required to complete them. There are simple and complex volitional actions. Simple ones have two components: goal setting and execution. In a complex volitional action, the following stages are distinguished:
1) an incentive to perform a volitional action caused by one or another need. Moreover, the degree of awareness of this need can be different: from a vaguely realized attraction to a clearly realized goal;
2) Understanding the purpose of the action
3) “struggle of motives” in the process of choosing one or another of the conflicting motives;
4) decision-making in the process of choosing one or another behavior option. At this stage, either a feeling of relief or a state of anxiety associated with uncertainty about the correctness of the decision may arise;
5) implementation of the decision made, implementation of one or another option of action. (see Appendix 1)
Inspiration to improve volitional action.
The most characteristic thing for volitional action, noted L. S. Vygotsky, is free choice, determined not from the outside, but from the inside, that is, motivated by the child himself! “A motive is an incentive to activity. V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin noted that a new development in the development of motives for volitional action is that behavior can be directed not only by the objects surrounding it, but by images, representations of objects, ideas about relationships to his actions of other people.
Understanding the purpose of an action
Volitional action begins with goal formation, always in the form of awareness of needs and objects for their satisfaction. In general, identifying the goal of an action as an idea of its product and the ability to regulate one’s actions with it is the first and necessary condition for the formation of activity. The formation and implementation of goals is considered not only as a stage of volitional action, but is also an essential moment in the formation of self-awareness of the individual as a whole. Awareness of a number of possibilities for achieving a goal is a mental action that is part of a volitional action, the result of which is the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between the ways of performing a volitional action in existing conditions and possible results. At the target selection stage, it is possible conflict situation, associated with the fact that a person accepts the possibility of an easy way to achieve a goal (this understanding is one of the results of the second stage), but at the same time, due to his moral feelings or principles, cannot accept it.
The struggle of motives that arises when goals are realized is not a structural component of volitional action, but a certain stage of volitional activity, of which action is a part. Each of the motives, before becoming a goal, goes through the stage of desire (in the case when the goal is chosen independently).
At the decision-making stage, either a feeling of relief or a state of anxiety associated with uncertainty about the correctness of the decision may arise;
Implementation of the decision made.
Characterizing volitional action involves considering the obstacles that the child encountered and managed to overcome in the process of achieving the goal. Activity in difficult conditions and overcoming obstacles are mandatory signs of volitional behavior of an individual.
Obstacles can arise at any stage of volitional action: when choosing one goal from several possible ones, when realizing the hierarchy of motives and the formation of meaning-forming motives, additional motives, in the process of mastering methods of objective action and communication, during objective assessment and self-assessment of results. Obstacles are overcome with the help of volitional effort. A big obstacle is the delay in achieving it from the moment the goal is set. The difficulty of assessing volitional action is that the result achieved by it may be a consequence of the manifestation of various psychological reasons. To clarify the characteristics of volitional action, several series of psychological experiments were conducted.
Thus, volitional actions are performed by children who achieved success in the most unfavorable conditions, when there were no additional conditions - incentives - this is the zone of actual development of their will. The zone of proximal development of volitional action is opened by results achieved under the influence of additional conditions - incentives that ensure the achievement of the goal.
Each desire, before it turns into a goal of volitional action, undergoes an internal discussion, during which the pros and cons are considered, and the conditions that help and hinder the fulfillment of the desire are weighed. In the imagination, a person runs ahead and mentally anticipates the result of his actions. Since a person at any moment has various significant desires, the simultaneous satisfaction of which is objectively excluded, there is a clash of opposing, divergent motives, between which a choice must be made. This situation is called the struggle of motives. At the stage of awareness of the goal and the desire to achieve it, the struggle of motives is resolved by choosing the goal of action, after which the tension caused by the struggle of motives at this stage weakens.
The most important sign of volitional behavior is overcoming internal and external obstacles. Internal, subjective obstacles include fatigue, desire to have fun, fear, shame, laziness. Often a person explains his behavior by external, objective reasons. However, not any action aimed at overcoming an obstacle is called volitional. A person running away from a dog can climb a tall tree, but his actions are not volitional. Depending on how the behavior is explained: by external or internal reasons, external and internal localization of control are distinguished, respectively.
K.D. Ushinsky said: “Will is moral capital, which a person puts into his nervous system from childhood, and the interest from which he later uses throughout his life. And lack of will is an unpaid loan that can overwhelm a person with interest.”
The results of any volitional action have two consequences for a person: first, it is the achievement of a specific goal; the second is due to the fact that a person evaluates his actions and learns appropriate lessons for the future regarding the ways to achieve the goal and the effort expended.
The most important place in the problem of will is occupied by the concept of “volitional act”. Each volitional act has a certain content, the most important components of which are decision-making and its execution. These elements act of will often cause significant mental stress, similar in nature to a state of stress
At each of these stages of a volitional act, a person shows will, controls and corrects his actions. At each of these moments, he compares the result obtained with in an ideal way goals that were created in advance.
In volitional actions, a person’s personality and strong-willed qualities are clearly manifested. They mean features of volitional regulation that manifest themselves in specific specific conditions determined by the nature of the difficulty being overcome. Will manifests itself in such personality traits as:
1) determination;
2)independence;
3) determination;
4) perseverance;
5) exposure;
6) self-control;
Each of these properties is opposed by opposite character traits, in which lack of will is expressed, i.e. lack of one's own will and submission to someone else's will. Volitional qualities are features of volitional regulation that manifest themselves in specific specific conditions determined by the nature of the difficulty being overcome.
Independence is manifested in the ability to take actions and make decisions based on internal motivation and one’s knowledge, skills and abilities. A person who is not independent is focused on subordinating to another, shifting responsibility onto him for his actions.
Decisiveness is expressed in the ability to make a thoughtful decision in a timely manner and without hesitation and implement it. The actions of a decisive person are characterized by thoughtfulness and speed, courage, and confidence in their actions. The opposite of decisiveness is indecisiveness. A person characterized by indecisiveness constantly doubts, hesitates in making decisions and using the chosen decision methods. An indecisive person, even having made a decision, begins to doubt again and waits to see what others will do. Self-restraint and self-control are the ability to control oneself, one’s actions and external manifestation emotions, constantly control them, even with failures and big failures. The opposite of self-control is the inability to restrain oneself, which is caused by a lack of special education and self-education. Perseverance is expressed in the ability to achieve a goal, overcoming difficulties on the way to achieving it. A persistent person does not deviate from his decision, and in case of failure he acts with renewed energy. A person lacking persistence retreats from his decision at the first failure. Discipline means consciously subordinating your behavior to certain norms and requirements. Discipline comes in different forms in both behavior and thinking, and is the opposite of indiscipline. Courage and boldness are manifested in the willingness and ability to fight, overcome difficulties and dangers on the way to achieving a goal, and in the readiness to defend one’s position in life. The opposite quality to courage is cowardice, which is usually caused by fear.
The formation of the listed volitional properties of a person is determined mainly by the purposeful education of the will, which should be inseparable from the education of feelings. .
Psychologists note that the initiative shown by a person, in addition to independence, is always associated with another quality of will - determination. Decisiveness lies in the absence of unnecessary hesitation and doubt when there is a conflict of motives, in timely and quick decision-making. First of all, determination is manifested in the choice of the dominant motive, as well as in the choice of adequate means to achieve the goal. Decisiveness also manifests itself when implementing a decision. From determination, as a positive volitional quality, it is necessary to distinguish impulsiveness, which is characterized by haste in decision-making and rashness of actions. An extremely important volitional quality of a person is the sequence of human actions. The sequence of actions characterizes the fact that all actions performed by a person follow from a single guiding principle, to which a person subordinates everything secondary and incidental. The sequence of actions, in turn, is closely related to self-control and self-esteem
Thus, will is not an innate or genetically given ability; it is formed in the process of life, in real activity which requires certain volitional qualities and volitional skills are regulated. Volitional regulation is Conscious activity, mediated by a person’s knowledge about the outside world, about his values and capabilities, on the basis of which predictions and assessments of the consequences of personal activity are made. The development of the will is closely connected with the development of thinking, imagination, emotions, the motivational and semantic sphere, with the development of consciousness and self-awareness, the personality as a whole.
1.2.Mental characteristics of preschool children
Preschool childhood is a very special period of child development. A. N. Leontiev gives the following general characteristics preschool childhood: “This is the period of the initial actual makeup of the personality, the period of development of personal “mechanisms” of behavior. In the preschool years of a child’s development, the first knots are tied, the first connections and relationships are established, which form a new, higher unity of activity and at the same time a new, higher unity of the subject - the unity of personality. That is why the period of preschool childhood is a period of such actual formation of the psychological mechanisms of the individual.”
At this age, the child’s entire mental life and his relationship to the world around him are restructured. The essence of this restructuring is that in preschool age, internal regulation of behavior arises. If at an early age the child’s behavior is stimulated and directed from the outside - by an adult or by a perceived situation, then in preschool age the child himself begins to determine his own behavior.
During preschool age there is a strong change in physical capabilities child, significant development of his motor, cognitive and speech, emotional functions. In particular, during the preschool period, gross and fine motor skills develop. The child learns to run and jump well, and also actively develops the ability to climb, maintain balance, throw and catch, pull up, etc. In addition, the child masters drawing and some elements of writing, moving from scribbles to completely recognizable images of people, houses, letters and other things. .
The main neoplasms of preschool age are:
1. The emergence of the first schematic outline of a complete children's worldview. Everything that the child sees, the child tries to put in order, to see the natural relationships in which the fickle fits. the world around us.AND. Piaget showed that a child in preschool age develops an artificalist worldview: everything that surrounds the child, including natural phenomena, is the result of human activity. When constructing a picture of the world, the child invents, invents a theoretical concept, and builds worldview schemes. This worldview is linked to the entire structure of preschool age, in the center of which is a person. D. B. Elkonin notices the paradox between a low level of intellectual capabilities and a high level of cognitive needs (Elkonin D. B. 1998).
2. The emergence of primary ethical authorities and, on their basis, moral assessments that begin to determine the child’s emotional attitude towards other people.
3. New motives for actions and actions arise, social in content, associated with an understanding of the relationships between people (motives of duty, cooperation, competition, etc.). All these motives come into play different ratios, form a complex structure and subjugate the child’s immediate desires.
At this age, one can already observe the predominance of deliberate actions over impulsive ones. Overcoming immediate desires is determined not only by the expectation of reward or punishment on the part of an adult, but also by the expressed promise of the child himself (the principle of the “given word”). Thanks to this, such personality qualities as perseverance and the ability to overcome difficulties are formed; There is also a sense of duty towards other people.
4. Voluntary behavior and a new attitude of the child towards himself and his capabilities are noted. Voluntary behavior is behavior mediated a certain idea D. B. Elkonin noted that in preschool age, an image orienting behavior first exists in a specific visual form, but then it becomes more and more generalized, appearing in the form of a rule or norm. Based on the formation of voluntary behavior, the child develops a desire to control himself and his actions. Mastering the ability to manage oneself, one’s behavior and actions stands out as a special task.
5. The emergence of personal consciousness - the emergence of consciousness of one’s limited place in the system of relations with adults. The desire to carry out socially significant and socially valued activities. The preschooler becomes aware of the possibilities of his actions, he begins to understand that he cannot do everything (the beginning of self-esteem). When talking about self-awareness, they often mean awareness of one’s personal qualities (good, kind, evil, etc.). “In this case,” emphasizes L. F. Obukhova, “we are talking about awareness of one’s place in the system public relations. Three years – outwardly “I myself”, six years – personal self-awareness. And here the external turns into the internal” (Obukhova L.F. 1999).
It is impossible not to note the important role of perception in artistic field. The main components can be identified in it:
1)perception of the whole and parts
2)perception of the picture
3)perception of time
4)perception of space
5)perception of a work of art
6) human perception
Perception of whole and part.
On the one hand, in perceiving a whole unfamiliar object, a child, according to G. Volkelt, conveys only his general “impression of the whole”: “something full of holes” (lattice) or “something piercing” (cone). Being “at the mercy of the whole” (Seifert), children do not know how to identify its constituent parts. They explain such facts by the inability of a preschool child to cognitive analytical activities because of his too pronounced emotionality.
However, the facts obtained by other researchers (V. Stern, S.N. Shabalin, O.I. Galkina, F.S. Rosenfeld, G.L. Rosengart-Pupko) convince us that even preschool children not only know how to isolate any characteristic feature, but also rely on it when identifying a whole object.
Picture perception.
It is difficult for preschool children to correctly perceive a picture. After all, even the simplest picture, which includes the image of at least two objects, shows them in some kind of spatial relationships. Understanding these connections is necessary to reveal the relationships between parts of the picture. Research (G.T. Ovsepyan, S.L. Rubinshtein, A.F. Yakovlicheva, A.A. Lyublinskaya, T.A. Kondratovich) showed that the features of a child’s description of a picture depend, first of all, on its content, familiarity or little familiar to the child, depending on the structure of the picture, the dynamism or static nature of the plot
Perception of time.
For a child, reflecting time is a much more difficult task than perceiving space. This is due, first of all, to the very nature of time as an object of knowledge and its role in the lives of children.
He distinguishes between day and night. Soon, these everyday milestones are joined by more objective natural phenomena, which children learn to perceive as signals of a certain time: “Morning (in winter) is not quite light yet,” “Evening is already dark, there is no sun.” For a long time, children do not understand the objective movement of time, its independence from the will and actions of people, therefore, while correctly using some designations of time, the child essentially does not understand the reality behind them. Preschoolers have only knowledge of the present and some vague idea of the past: “It was a long time ago.”
Perception of space.
Significant changes in the preschool period are observed in the perception of space according to its main features. The child learns about space as he masters it.
The development of orientation in space, as shown by the studies of A.Ya. Kolodnoy, begins with differentiation of the spatial relationships of the child’s own body (identifies and names the right hand, left, paired parts of the body). Inclusion of words in the process of perception, mastery independent speech significantly contributes to the improvement of spatial relationships, directions “The more accurately the words define the direction, the easier the child is oriented in it, the more fully he includes these spatial features in the picture of the world reflected by him, the more meaningful, logical and integral it becomes for the child”
Perception of works of art.
Soviet psychologists consider artistic perception as a result of personality development. However, the rudiments of artistic perception already appear in preschool age. Children's perception of works of art cannot be considered in isolation from its semantic content. L.S. Vygotsky experimentally established the relationship between perception and speech at certain stages of development.
Human perception.
The complex mental process that is the perception of a person by a person is formed along with the development of the perceiver himself, with a change in his need for communication, cognition and work.
In the preschool period, a person’s perception continues to actively form, which is greatly facilitated by the child’s mastery of new types of activities, the expansion of the circle and the emergence of non-situational - personal communication.
The peculiarities of a child’s reflection of a person are also revealed by children’s visual creativity. By the kind of people a child portrays, how their images are revealed, one can to a certain extent judge his attitude towards them, what he easily imprints in a person, what he pays more attention to.
Let's consider individual components of mental development of preschool age.
Features of attention development
Attention is most important quality, which characterizes the selection process necessary information and discarding the excess. The fact is that the human brain receives thousands of signals from the outside world every second. If attention (a kind of filter) did not exist, then our brain would not be able to avoid overload. Attention has certain properties: volume, stability, concentration, selectivity, distribution, switchability and randomness. Violation of each of these properties leads to deviations in the child’s behavior and activities. A small amount of attention is the inability to concentrate on several objects at the same time and keep them in mind. Insufficient concentration and stability of attention - it is difficult for a child to maintain attention for a long time without being distracted or weakening it.
Insufficient selectivity of attention - the child cannot concentrate on exactly that part of the material that is necessary to solve the task.
Poorly developed ability to switch attention - it is difficult for a child to switch from performing one type of activity to another. Poorly developed ability to distribute attention - the inability to effectively (without errors) perform several tasks at the same time. Insufficient voluntary attention - the child finds it difficult to concentrate attention on demand.
A child’s attention at the beginning of preschool age reflects his interest in surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. The child is focused only until interest wanes. The appearance of a new object immediately causes a shift of attention to it. Therefore, children rarely do the same thing for a long time.
During preschool age, due to the complication of children's activities and their movement in general mental development, attention acquires greater concentration and stability. So, if younger preschoolers can play the same game for 30-50 minutes, then by the age of five or six years the duration of the game increases to two hours. The stability of children's attention also increases when looking at pictures, listening to stories and fairy tales. Thus, the duration of looking at a picture approximately doubles by the end of preschool age; A six-year-old child is more aware of a picture than a younger preschooler and identifies more interesting aspects and details in it.
The main change in attention in preschool age is that children for the first time begin to control their attention, consciously direct it to certain objects and phenomena, and stay on them, using certain means for this. Starting from senior preschool age, children become able to maintain attention on actions that acquire intellectually significant interest for them (puzzle games, riddles, educational-type tasks). The stability of attention in intellectual activity increases noticeably by the age of seven.
In preschoolers it predominates involuntary attention. This manifests itself in rapid distractibility, the inability to concentrate on one thing, in frequent changes activities. Voluntary attention is formed gradually, as its individual properties develop, such as volume, concentration, distribution, switching and stability. The development of attention is closely related to the development of responsibility, which involves carefully performing any task - both interesting and uninteresting. The role of emotional factors (interest), mental and volitional processes clearly affects the development of attention.
Features of memory development.
Memory is one of the necessary conditions for the development of intellectual abilities. But if until recently the main attention of scientists was paid to school age, where, as it seemed, the child acquires the knowledge and skills necessary for everyone, develops his strengths and abilities, now the situation has changed radically. Memory is a complex of processes by which a person perceives, remembers, stores and reproduces information. There is voluntary and involuntary memory. With involuntary memorization, objects are imprinted in memory without any volitional effort on the part of the person. Memory can also be divided into direct and indirect. With direct (mechanical) memorization, the process of storing information occurs without the participation of thinking, i.e. without understanding the material, without establishing a logical structure and using associative memorization techniques.
There are also several types of memory, allocated by the time of storing information: short-term memory, which allows you to retain the received information for a short time, about 20 seconds; long-term memory, designed to store information for a long time; RAM, which retains information for a certain, predetermined period of time necessary to perform any action or operation. Deficiencies in each type of memory lead to disruption of its functioning as a whole.
The fact that memory develops most intensively in a preschooler compared to other abilities does not mean that one should be content with this fact. On the contrary, the child’s memory should be developed as much as possible at a time when all factors are conducive to this. Therefore, we can talk about the development of a child’s memory, starting from early childhood.
It is reliably known: you should not skip these years, otherwise an irreversible process will occur. Time is lost - opportunities are lost to easily and painlessly learn the main thing for this age. Preschoolers are unusually sensitive to various kinds of influences, and if we do not notice the results of some influences, this does not yet indicate that they do not mean anything. Children, like a sponge, absorb impressions and knowledge, but do not immediately produce results.
Imagination is the process of transforming ideas that reflect reality and creating new ideas on this basis.
The process of imagination always occurs in inextricable connection with two other mental processes - memory and thinking. Speaking about imagination, we can only emphasize the predominant direction of mental activity.
If a person is faced with the task of reproducing representations of things and events that were previously in his experience, we speak of memory processes. But if the same ideas are reproduced in order to create a new combination of these ideas or create new ideas from them, we speak of the activity of the imagination.
Imagination plays a greater role in the life of a child than in the life of an adult. Children believe what they invent. Imagination allows us to cognize the world around us, performing a gnostic function. Imagination arises in situations of uncertainty, when a preschooler finds it difficult to find an explanation in his experience for any fact of reality. This situation brings together imagination and thinking. Thinking ensures selectivity in the transformation of impressions, and imagination complements and concretizes the processes of mental problem solving and allows one to overcome stereotypes.
Imagination turns into a special intellectual activity aimed at transforming the surrounding world. The support for creating an image is now not only a real object, but also ideas expressed in words. Rapid growth begins verbal forms imagination, closely related to the development of speech and thinking, when a child composes fairy tales, upside-down stories, and continuing stories.
The preschooler's imagination remains largely involuntary. The subject of fantasy becomes something that greatly excites, captivates, and amazes him. At 5-7 years old, external support suggests a plan, and the child arbitrarily plans its implementation and selects the necessary means.
The growth of the arbitrariness of the imagination is manifested in the student in the development of the ability to create a plan and plan its achievement. The increase in the focus of imagination throughout preschool childhood can be concluded from the increase in the duration of children’s play on the same topic, as well as from the stability of roles.
Imagination helps the child solve emotional and personal problems, unconsciously get rid of disturbing memories, restore psychological comfort, and overcome feelings of loneliness. Games with fictional characters allow us to conclude that the need for communication is not sufficiently satisfied. Feelings of insecurity and fear encourage you to come up with stronger friends who protect your child. Often the description of fictitious events is due to the desire to be recognized in a peer group, if the child cannot achieve this recognition through real means. Thus, the formation of a psychological defense mechanism occurs.
Features of imagination development
Imagination gains arbitrary, involving the creation of a plan, its planning and implementation; it becomes a special activity, turning into fantasy; the child masters the techniques and means of creating images; imagination moves to the internal plane, and there is no need for visual support for creating images.
Features of the development of thinking
Considering thinking as a process that covers the entire life path person, it can be noted that on each age stage this process has a number of features. According to J. Piaget, one can distinguish two simple functions of thought: the function of explanation and the function of inclusion, which constitute the unity of all the activity of thought rather than two closed areas.
Complication and development of the early form mental activity leads to the emergence of imaginative thinking, which intensively develops during preschool childhood. Its simplest manifestations are already present in early childhood, however, the tasks solved by the baby in terms of ideas and images are to a greater extent primitive. During the period of preschool childhood, the child faces the problem of solving problems that require establishing dependencies between several properties and phenomena.
Ya.Z. Neverovich argued that further development of imaginative thinking brings the child to the threshold of logic. However, the role of emotions in the regulation of activity is still so significant that “emotional-imaginative thinking” remains dominant in the structure of the intellect for a long time. L.S. Vygotsky also adhered to this point of view, saying that the unity of affect and intellect is not a lack of thinking, but its specific feature, which allows solving a wide range of problems that require a high level of generalization, without resorting to logical formalization. At the same time, the decision process itself is emotionally charged, which makes it interesting and meaningful for the child. .
As shown by N.N. Poddyakov, at the age of 4-6 years there is an intensive formation and development of skills and abilities that facilitate children’s study of the external environment, analysis of the properties of objects, and influence on them in order to change them. This level of mental development - visual and effective thinking - is preparatory, it contributes to the accumulation of facts, information about the world around us, creating the basis for the formation of ideas and concepts, i.e. precedes abstract thinking.
In the process of visual-effective thinking, prerequisites appear for the formation of a more complex form of thinking - visual-figurative, which is characterized by the fact that the resolution problematic situation can be carried out by a child only in terms of ideas, without the use of practical actions.
The end of the preschool period is characterized by the predominance of the highest form of visual-figurative thinking - visual-schematic. The advantage of this form of thinking is the ability to reflect significant connections and dependencies between objects in the external world. A behavioral reflection of a child’s achievement of this level of mental development is schematism. children's drawing, the child’s ability to use schematic representations when solving problems. In itself, visual-schematic thinking provides great opportunities in mastering the external environment, being a means for the child to create a generalized model of various objects and phenomena. Acquiring the features of the generalized, this form of thinking remains figurative, based on real actions with objects or their substitutes. At the same time, it is the basis for the formation of logical thinking associated with the use and transformation of concepts.
With directed developmental education in older preschool age, the assimilation of a certain type of mental actions and concepts already occurs. Thus, 6 summer child can approach solving a problem situation in three ways: using visual-effective thinking, visual-figurative and logical. Taking into account the development of search and planning activity by this age, the ability to analyze and use the information obtained in the course of solving problems, his mental potential turns out to be quite high. At the same time, its capabilities, especially if they are considered in terms of the fixed development of the logical form of thinking and the assimilation of a system of concepts, should not be overestimated.
Object activity and play in child development
In a young child, objective activity is formed. Its difference from simple manipulation of surrounding objects, characteristic of infants, is that the child’s actions and methods of handling objects begin to obey the functional purpose of these objects in the life of a cultured person
By the beginning of the third year of life, object-related activity has already been formed, at least in relation to those household items that the child uses. Towards the end early period Throughout their lives, children play a lot with various objects, primarily toys, and not only manipulate them, but also design and build something new out of them. The first attempts to appeal appear visual arts, in the form of drawing on paper.
Children's games of a subject plan can be of three types: game - exploration, game - construction and role-playing game. All types of games are essential for a child's development, determining his progress in cognitive, personal and social development.
Certain stages of the consistent improvement of children's games, work and learning at this age can be traced by conditionally dividing preschool childhood into three periods for analytical purposes: junior preschool age (3-4 years), middle preschool age (4-5 years) and senior preschool age (5-6 years old). Younger preschoolers They also usually play alone. In their object and construction games, they improve perception, memory, imagination, thinking and motor abilities. Role-playing games for children of this age usually reproduce the actions of those adults whom they observe in everyday life.
Gradually, by the middle period of preschool childhood, games become joint, and more and more children are included in them. The main thing in these games is not the reproduction of the behavior of adults in relation to the objective world, but the imitation of certain relationships between people, in particular role-playing ones. Children identify the roles and rules on which these relationships are built, strictly monitor their observance in the game and try to follow them themselves.
The emergence of plot-role-playing play in children’s life is associated with a number of circumstances: by this time the child’s symbolic function must have reached a high level of development, he must learn to use objects not only for their intended purpose, but also in accordance with the intent of the game; he should have a need to copy the actions of adults; thirdly, he must learn to interact with other people - children and adults - in the game.
In role-playing games, the child copies the ways people handle objects and the ways they treat each other in various social situations. Thus, the child better masters objective actions, forms and norms of communication, as well as role behavior. From a functional point of view, role-playing play can be considered as preparing a child to participate in public life in various social roles.
Play is the main activity of a preschooler. Children of this age spend most of their time playing. During the years of preschool childhood, children's games go through a fairly significant development path from objective-manipulative and symbolic to plot-role-playing games with rules. In older preschool age, you can find almost all types of games that are found in children before entering school. The child appears and develops the ability to plan his actions, improves manual movements and mental operations, imagination and ideas.
Another important mental feature preschool age is the crisis of seven years. The crisis of seven years is a crisis of self-regulation. The child begins to regulate his behavior with rules. Previously flexible, he suddenly begins to make demands for attention to himself, his behavior becomes pretentious. On the one hand, a demonstrative naivety appears in his behavior, which is perceived by others as insincerity. On the other hand, it seems too adult: it imposes norms on others.
Main features:
1) loss of spontaneity (between desire and action, the experience of what meaning this action will have for the child is inserted);
2) mannerisms (the child pretends to be something, hides something);
3) the “bitter candy” symptom - the child feels bad, but he tries not to show it.
Transition period characterized by exaggerated forms of behavior. The child does not control his feelings - he cannot restrain, but he also does not know how to manage them. The fact is that, having lost some forms of behavior, he did not acquire others.
The basic need is respect. Any junior schoolboy makes a claim to respect, to be treated as an adult, to recognition of his sovereignty. If the need for respect is not satisfied, then it will be impossible to build a relationship with this person on the basis of understanding.
L.S. Vygotsky sees psychological meaning The crisis of seven years is that, having lost spontaneity, the child gains freedom in the current situation. This freedom is given to him by the arbitrariness and indirectness of his mental life. He begins to understand and realize his experiences, and a “logic of feelings” arises. In addition, the ability to generalize one’s own experiences appears. Only now a child, fully aware, can say “I like this, but I don’t like that,” without being guided by the preferences of a significant adult.
The main mental new formation that the seven-year crisis leads to is the ability and need for social functioning. The child strives to obtain a certain social position - the position of a schoolchild.
L. S. Vygotsky identifies some features that characterize the crisis of seven years:
1) Experiences acquire meaning, thanks to this the child develops new relationships with himself that were impossible before the generalization of experiences.
2) By the seven-year crisis, generalization of experiences, or affective generalization, the logic of feelings, first appears. In a school-age child, a generalization of feelings arises, i.e., if some situation has happened to him many times, he develops an affective formation, the nature of which also relates to a single experience or affect, as a concept relates to a single perception or memory
A crisis can occur in different ways, depending on the child’s readiness for a new type of activity and the time of transition to it. Negative symptoms can occur when the child is ready for educational activities and there is no transition to it. A crisis may manifest itself in the event of a transition to educational activity and the child is not ready to move on to it.
Through communication with adults and older children, through targeted preparation for school in the family and preschool, the child begins to form a subjective desire to become a schoolchild.
One of the main symptoms of the seven-year crisis is antics, mannerisms, and disobedience. The child becomes uncontrollable, he does not react to the parents’ comments, pretends that he does not hear them, or goes into open conflict. In general, all crises are similar to each other.
However, despite the external similarity, each has an underlying age crisis own If earlier the child “fought” mainly for independence, the ability to act autonomously, then at the age of seven the manifestation of the crisis is associated with the loss of childish spontaneity, that is, with the “wedging” of the intellectual moment between experience and action. Ordinary household rules established by parents become for the child the embodiment of the “children’s” world, from which he rather wants to move away.
The child feels an urgent need to be an “adult”, to behave like an adult, to dress appropriately, to make independent decisions. This is largely facilitated by the very cultural environment in which children are raised. From an early age, a child is taught that when he goes to first grade, this will indicate that he has grown up. Having become a schoolchild, the child expects to become an “adult” with the acquisition of his own social position.
So the combination individual qualities, which is completely unique for each person, largely determines his behavior, communication with other people and attitude towards himself. However, qualities are only the background against which the personality structure is formed.
During preschool age, children’s independence from the surrounding situation also increases; their behavior is determined by motives, which begin to form a certain hierarchy, not yet recognized by the child. It is at this age that children begin to recognize themselves as subjects in the system social relations, they form an internal position that reflects the degree of their satisfaction with their place in these relationships.
1.3. Will in preschoolers
Preschool age is the age of the emergence of will as conscious control of one’s behavior, one’s external and internal actions. In the process of upbringing and training, under the influence of adult demands, a child develops the ability to subordinate his actions to one or another task, overcoming the difficulties that arise.
The most important acquisition of a preschool child is the transformation of a child’s behavior from “field behavior to volitional behavior” (A. N. Leontiev). The main characteristics of a preschooler’s “field” behavior are impulsiveness and situational awareness. The child acts without thinking, under the influence of spontaneously arising experiences. And the goals and content of his activity are determined by external objects, components of the situation in which the baby is. So, having seen the doll, the child begins to feed it. If a book comes into his field of vision, he immediately throws the doll and begins to enthusiastically look at the pictures. Around 3 years of age, in connection with the development of personal action and self-awareness, the preschooler has personal desires that cause his activity, which are expressed in the form: “I want” or “I don’t want.” Their manifestation marks the beginning of the formation of will, when situational dependence in behavior is overcome and activities. Now the child receives relative freedom from the situation, the ability to “stand” above it. Behavior and activity in preschool age change not only in content, but also in structure, when their more complex organization takes shape. The child masters goal setting, planning, and control.
A preschooler masters goal setting - the ability to set goals for an activity. Elementary purposefulness is already observed in an infant (A.V. Zaporozhets, N.M. Shchelovanov) He reaches out to a toy that interests him, searches for it if it goes beyond his field of vision. But such goals are set from the outside (by the subject).
In connection with the development of independence in the child, already in early childhood (at the age of about 2 years), a desire for a goal arises, but it is achieved only with the help of an adult. The emergence of personal desires leads to the emergence of “internal” purposefulness, determined by the aspirations and needs of the child himself.
From about 3 years of age, the child’s behavior is increasingly prompted by motives that, replacing each other, are reinforced or come into conflict.
At preschool age, a relationship of motives with each other develops - their subordination. The system of motives is easily disrupted under the influence of a strong emotional impulse, which leads to a violation of well-known rules. Based on the subordination of motives, the baby has the opportunity to consciously subordinate his actions to a distant motive (A.N. Leontyev). For example, make a drawing to please his mother at the upcoming holiday. That is, the child’s behavior begins to be mediated by the ideally presented image. The connection of motives with the idea of an object or situation makes it possible to attribute an action to the future. The subordination of motives occurs on the basis of their struggle. In early childhood, the struggle of motives and, consequently, their subordination are absent. The preschooler simply obeys a stronger motive. An attractive goal directly causes him to take action. The preschooler is aware of the struggle of motives as internal conflict, experiences it, understanding his need to choose.
The subordination of motives in a preschooler, as shown by studies by A.N. Leontiev, initially occurs in the immediate social situation communication with adults. The correlation of motives is set by the demands of the elder and controlled by the adult. And only later does the subordination of motives appear when objective circumstances require it. Now a preschooler can strive to achieve an unattractive goal for the sake of something else that is meaningful to him. Or he may give up something pleasant in order to achieve something more important or avoid something undesirable. As a result of this, the child’s individual actions acquire a complex, as if reflected, meaning.
By the age of six or seven, the child begins to have a more adequate attitude towards his achievements and to see the successes of other children.
If the motives associated with the child’s claim to recognition among adults and children are not satisfied, if the child is constantly scolded, not noticed, given offensive nicknames, are not taken into the game, he may exhibit antisocial forms of behavior leading to violation of the rules. The child strives to attract the attention of other people through negative actions.
The preschooler's interest in the world of adults expands; more clearly than at an early age, the desire to join it and act like an adult is manifested. These unconditionally positive motives can lead the child to violate the rules of behavior and to actions that are condemned by elders.
Thus, in preschool age, children’s internal mental action and operations are identified and formalized intellectually. They concern decisions not only cognitive, but also personal tasks. It is important to note that at this time the child develops an internal, personal life, first in the cognitive sphere, and then in the emotional - motivational sphere. Development in both directions occurs in its own stages, from imagery to symbolism.
It should also be mentioned that the creative process begins, expressed in the ability to transform the surrounding reality, to create something new. Creativity in children they manifest themselves in constructive games, technical and artistic creativity. During this period of time, the existing inclinations to special abilities. Attention to them in preschool childhood is a prerequisite for the accelerated development of abilities and a stable, creative attitude of the child to reality. In cognitive processes, a synthesis of external and internal actions arises, combining into a single intellectual activity. In perception, this synthesis is represented by perceptual actions, in attention - by the ability to manage and control internal and external plans of action, in memory - by the combination of external and internal structuring of material during its memorization and perception.
In preschool age, imagination, thinking and speech are connected. Such a synthesis gives rise to the child’s ability to evoke and voluntarily manipulate images with the help of verbal self-instructions. This means that the child develops and begins to successfully function internal speech as a means of thinking. The synthesis of cognitive processes underlies the child’s full assimilation native language and can be used in teaching a foreign language.
At the same time, the process of speech formation as a means of learning is completed, which prepares favorable soil for the activation of education and for the development of the child as an individual. In the process of upbringing, carried out on a speech basis, elementary moral norms, forms and rules of cultural behavior are learned. Having been internalized and becoming characteristic features personality of the child, these norms and rules begin to control his behavior, turning actions into arbitrary and morally regulated actions. The pinnacle of a child’s personal development in preschool childhood is personal self-awareness, which includes recognition of one’s own personal qualities, abilities, reasons for successes and failures.
Special requirements The child's will is challenged by situations in which opposing motives collide. The child must choose between two possible solutions. In this situation, a struggle of motives occurs, ending in the victory of one of them.
The possibilities of intelligently choosing a solution increase significantly towards older preschool age. They are based on the subordination of motives that forms in children: the decision begins to be determined not by the stronger one at the moment, but by a more important, significant motive. This leads to the development of self-control, the ability to restrain and suppress situational desires, feelings and their manifestations, and strengthens the child’s will. But even in older preschoolers, volitional actions associated with choice and the struggle of motives do not always end in a decision in favor of a more significant motive. It depends on the individual characteristics of the child and the situation in which the choice occurs.
The core of the psychological concept of L.S. Vygotsky’s thesis is: “With the help of speech, a child for the first time becomes capable of mastering his own behavior, treating himself as if from the outside, considering himself as a certain object. Speech helps to master this object through the organization and planning of his own actions and behavior.”
Voluntariness develops most intensively precisely in preschool age, when the child’s behavior begins to be mediated not by external means(an object or word from an adult), and internally - the image of an adult and the child’s idea of his behavior. This ability is formed and most clearly manifested in the leading activity of a preschooler - role-playing game, which was called by Vygotsky the school of voluntary behavior. In a number of studies domestic psychologists It has been shown that in play children are far ahead of their abilities in mastering their behavior. In a study by L.I. Bozhovich, it was found that preschoolers are able to engage in a task that is boring for them (writing the same letters) for a long time and diligently when they depict in the game students performing their duties.
The emergence of a new value for a preschooler" correct behavior“and the transformation of the rule into the motive of one’s own actions mark a new stage in the development of not only the child’s volition, but also the will of the child.
Thus, the central role in the process of forming a child’s volitional qualities belongs to an adult, who not only conveys the rule of action to the child, but also makes it affectively significant. Only if the rule acquires motivating force does it become a means of mastering one’s behavior, and action according to the rule turns into the child’s own, free, and not imposed action. The preschooler no longer simply obeys the instructions and control of an adult, but acts on his own, controlling his own actions. In order for a child’s own activity to arise, a support stage is necessary, when an adult, with his presence, assessments, and models, both supports and stimulates his activity. And only when a given object becomes the motive for the child’s own actions, regardless of the presence of an adult, can we talk about the formation of a new activity and a new form of volitional and voluntary behavior.
Conclusion for chapter 1
So, will is a person’s ability to act in the direction of a consciously set goal, overcoming obstacles. Volitional actions are aimed at changing certain personality traits. Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior (activity and communication), associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles. Volitional action is a conscious action associated with overcoming serious difficulties on the way to a goal and, in connection with this, associated with significant volitional efforts. Thus, volitional action is characterized not only by the presence of a certain motive, goal, and the formation of an image of the expected result, but also by significant volitional effort.
The child’s will does not develop on its own, but in connection with the general development of the personality.
The development of will in preschool age is an important condition for the further upbringing and education of a child. None systematic training and education is impossible if the child does not control himself, if he acts only under the influence of immediate impulses, not being able to subordinate his actions to the instructions of the teacher and parents, the requirements of the educational program. Education has a decisive influence on the development of the will.
Chapter II. Experimental study of the characteristics of volitional behavior in preschool children
2.1. Ascertaining experiment program
The purpose of the study is to identify differences in volitional tact in preschool children.
Research hypothesis: children 6–7 years old, brought up in the same conditions, have different levels of volitional qualities.
The object of the study is volitional behavior in preschool children
The subject of the study is the manifestation of the will of a preschooler
To achieve the goal of the study and test the hypothesis, the following tasks were solved:
1. Theoretical study of the problem of volitional qualities in domestic and foreign literature
2. Empirical investigation of the problem of development of volitional qualities of a preschooler
3.Analysis of experimental research results
At preschool age, the formation of volitional action occurs. The child masters goal setting, planning, and control.
Volitional action begins with setting a goal. A preschooler masters goal setting - the ability to set goals for an activity. Elementary purposefulness is already observed in an infant (A.V. Zaporozhets, N.M. Shchelovanov). He reaches out to the toy that interests him, looking for it if it goes beyond his field of vision. But such goals are set from the outside (by the subject).
In connection with the development of independence, the child already in early childhood (at the age of about 2 years) begins to strive for a goal, but it is achieved only with the help of an adult. The emergence of personal desires leads to the emergence of “internal” purposefulness, determined by the aspirations and needs of the baby himself. But in a preschooler, purposefulness manifests itself more in setting rather than achieving goals. Under the influence of external circumstances and situations, the child easily gives up the goal and replaces it with another.
In a preschooler, goal setting develops through independent, proactive goal setting, which changes in content with age. Younger preschoolers set goals related to their personal interests and immediate desires. And elders can set goals that are important not only for them, but also for those around them. As L.S. Vygotsky emphasized, the most characteristic of volitional action is the free choice of a goal, one’s behavior, determined not by external circumstances, but motivated by the child himself. Motive, motivating children to activity, explains why this or that goal is chosen.
From about 3 years of age, a child’s behavior is increasingly prompted by motives that, replacing each other, are reinforced or come into conflict.
At preschool age, a relationship of motives with each other develops - their subordination. A leading motive is identified, which determines the behavior of a preschooler, subordinating other motives. We emphasize that the system of motives is easily violated under the influence of a strong emotional impulse, which leads to a violation of well-known rules. For example, a child, rushing to see what gift his grandmother brought, forgets to say hello to her, although in other situations he always greets adults and peers.
Based on the subordination of motives, the baby has the opportunity to consciously subordinate his actions to a distant motive (A.N. Leontyev). For example, make a drawing to please your mother at the upcoming holiday. That is, the child’s behavior begins to be mediated by the ideal represented model (“How happy mother will be when she receives a drawing as a gift”). The connection of motives with the idea of an object or situation makes it possible to attribute an action to the future.
The subordination of motives occurs on the basis of their struggle. In early childhood, the struggle of motives and, consequently, their subordination is absent. The preschooler simply obeys a stronger motive. An attractive goal directly causes him to take action. The preschooler recognizes the struggle of motives as an internal conflict, experiences it, understanding the need to choose.
The subordination of motives in a preschooler, as shown by A.N. Leontiev’s research, initially occurs in a direct social situation of communication with an adult. The balance of motives is set by the elder’s demands and is controlled by the adult. And only later the subordination of motives appears when objective circumstances require it. Now a preschooler can strive to achieve an unattractive goal for the sake of something else that is meaningful to him. Or he may give up something pleasant in order to achieve something more important or avoid something undesirable. As a result, the child’s individual actions acquire a complex, as if reflected, meaning.
Thus, the child’s behavior turns into extra-situational personal behavior and loses its spontaneity. It is directed by the idea of the object, and not by the object itself, that is, an ideal motivation appears, for example, a moral norm becomes the motive.
The motives of a preschooler are impulsive and unconscious. They are mainly associated with objective activities and communication with adults.
Expanding the boundaries of a preschooler’s life activity leads to the development of motives that affect the spheres of attitude towards the world around him, other people and himself.
The motives of a preschooler not only become more diverse, they are recognized by children and acquire different motivating powers.
Children aged 3-7 years have a pronounced interest in the content and process of new types of activities: drawing, labor, design and especially play. Game motives retain significant motivating power throughout preschool age. They presuppose the child’s desire to “enter” an imaginary situation and act according to its laws. Therefore in didactic game knowledge is absorbed most successfully, and the creation of an imaginary situation makes it easier to fulfill the adult’s requirements.
In preschool childhood, children develop an interest in new, more important, more “adult” types of activities (reading and counting) and a desire to perform them, which is caused by the formation of the prerequisites for educational activities.
At the age of 3-7 years, cognitive motives intensively develop. According to N.M. Matyushina and A.N. Golubeva, at 3-4 years old children often replace cognitive tasks with play tasks. And in children 4-7 years old, persistence is observed in solving mental problems, which gradually increases. In older preschoolers, cognitive motives are increasingly separated from play motives.
In older preschool age, cognitive motives come to the fore in didactic games. Children receive satisfaction from solving not only a gaming problem, but also a mental one, from the intellectual efforts with which these problems were solved.
In the sphere of self-relationship, a preschooler’s desire for self-affirmation and recognition sharply increases, which is due to the need to realize his personal significance, value, and uniqueness. And the older the child, the more important it is for him to recognize not only adults, but also other children.
Motives associated with a child’s claim to recognition are expressed (at the age of 4-7 years) in competitiveness and rivalry. Preschoolers want to be better than other children and always achieve good results in their activities.
By the age of 6-7 years, the child begins to have a more adequate attitude towards his achievements and see the successes of other children.
If the motives associated with the child’s claim to recognition among adults and children are not satisfied, if the child is constantly scolded or not noticed, given offensive nicknames, not taken into play, etc., he may exhibit antisocial forms of behavior leading to violations rules The child seeks to attract the attention of other people through negative actions.
Older preschoolers strive to maintain positive relationships with peers and perform common activities. Moreover, the motives for communicating with friends in children 5-7 years old are so strong that the child often gives up his personal interests in order to maintain contacts, for example, agrees to an unattractive role, refuses a toy.
The preschooler's interest in the world of adults expands; more clearly than in early childhood, the desire to join it and act like an adult is manifested. These unconditionally positive motives can lead to the child violating the rules of behavior and to actions that are condemned by elders.
Considering the high motivating power of motives associated with the desire to be like an adult, it is necessary to show the child where and how he can show his “adulthood”, entrust him with some harmless, but serious and important task, “which no one can do well without him.” . And when assessing his action, which at first glance is obviously negative, it is necessary first of all to find out the motive that caused it.
The most important acquisition in the motivational sphere of preschoolers, along with the subordination of motives, is the development of moral motives. At 3-4 years of age, moral motives are either absent or only slightly influence the outcome of the struggle of motives. At the age of 4-5 they are already characteristic of a significant part of children. And at the age of 5-7 years, moral motives become especially effective. By the age of 7, moral motives become decisive in their motivating power. That is, social requirements turn into the needs of the child himself. But throughout preschool age, the following features of the struggle of motives remain. As before, the child performs many impulsive actions under the influence of strong emotions. For an older preschooler, it is possible to suppress affect, although with difficulty. Motives associated with organic needs are difficult to overcome; the conflict most clearly arises between social and personal motives; the choice between them is acutely experienced by the child.
A preschooler is able to exert volitional effort to achieve a goal. Purposefulness develops as a strong-willed quality and an important character trait.
Maintaining and achieving a goal depends on a number of conditions. Firstly, on the difficulty of the task and the duration of its completion. If the task is complex, then additional reinforcement is needed in the form of instructions, questions, advice from an adult, or visual support.
Secondly, from successes and failures in activity. After all, the result is a visual reinforcement of volitional action. At 3-4 years old, successes and failures do not affect the child’s volitional action. Middle preschoolers experience success or failure in their activities. Failures affect her negatively and do not stimulate perseverance. And success always has a positive effect. A more complex ratio is typical for children 5-7 years old. Success encourages overcoming difficulties. But for some children, failure has the same effect. An interest in overcoming difficulties arises. And failure to complete a task is assessed negatively by older preschoolers (N.M. Matyushina, A.N. Golubeva).
Thirdly, from the attitude of the adult, which involves evaluating the child’s actions. An objective, friendly assessment from an adult helps the child mobilize his strength and achieve results.
Fourthly, from the ability to imagine in advance the future attitude towards the result of one’s activities (N.I. Nepomnyashchaya). (For example, making paper mats was more successful when an adult or other children made demands on these gifts on behalf of the persons for whom the gifts were intended.)
Fifthly, on the motivation of the goal, on the relationship between motives and goals. A preschooler achieves a goal more successfully with play motivation, and also when the most close target. (Ya.Z. Neverovich, studying the influence of different motives on the activities of preschool children, showed that she was more active when the children made a flag for the kids and a napkin for the mother. If the situation changed (the napkin was intended for the kids, and the flag for the mother), the children very often did not complete the task, they were constantly distracted. They did not understand why mother needed a flag, and the kids needed a napkin.) Gradually, the preschooler moves on to internal regulation of actions that become voluntary. The development of arbitrariness presupposes the formation of a child’s focus on his own external or internal actions, as a result of which the ability to manage oneself is born (A.N. Leontyev, E.O. Smirnova). The development of voluntariness occurs in different areas of the psyche, in different types of activity of a preschooler.
After 3 years, arbitrariness in the sphere of movements is intensively formed (A.V. Zaporozhets). The acquisition of motor skills in a preschooler is a by-product of objective activity. For the first time in a preschooler, mastery of movements becomes the goal of activity. Gradually they turn into manageable ones, controlled by the child on the basis of a sensorimotor image. The child consciously tries to reproduce the characteristic movements of a certain character and convey to him special manners.
The self-control mechanism is built according to the type of external control substantive actions and movements. The task of maintaining a motionless posture is not available to children 3-4 years old. At 4-5 years old, behavior is controlled under the control of vision. Therefore, the child is easily distracted by external factors. At 5-6 years old, preschoolers use some techniques to avoid distractions. They control their behavior under the control of motor sensations. Self-management takes on the features of an automatically occurring process. At 6-7 years old, children maintain a motionless posture for a long time, and this no longer requires continuous effort from them (Z.V. Manuylenko).
In older preschool age, mental processes occurring in the internal mental plane begin to acquire features of voluntariness: memory, thinking, imagination, perception and speech (Z.M. Istomina, N.G. Agenosova, A.V. Zaporozhets, etc.).
By the age of 6-7 years, arbitrariness develops in the sphere of communication with adults (E.E. Kravtsova). Indicators of arbitrariness of communication are attitudes towards the requests and tasks of an adult, the ability to accept them and carry them out according to the proposed rules. Children can retain the context of communication and understand the duality of the adult’s position as a participant in common activities and a source of rules.
Awareness and indirectness are the main characteristics of voluntariness.
At the age of about 2 years, all the baby’s behavior becomes mediated and controlled first by the adult’s speech, and then by his own. That is, already in early childhood, the word mediates the child’s behavior, causes or inhibits his reactions. Understanding the meaning of the word allows the child to follow the rather complex instructions and demands of an adult. The child begins to record his action in a word, which means he is aware of it.
For a preschooler, the word becomes a means of mastering his behavior, making possible independent speech mediation in various types of activities.
Speech connects current events with the past and future in time. It allows the preschooler to go beyond what he perceives at the moment. Speech helps to master one’s activities and behavior through planning, which acts as a way of self-regulation. When planning, the child creates in speech form a model, a program of his actions, when he outlines their goal, conditions, means, methods and sequence. The ability to plan one’s activities is formed only with training from an adult. Initially, the child masters it as the activity progresses. And then planning moves to its beginning, beginning to precede execution.
Another characteristic of voluntary action is awareness, or awareness. Awareness of one's own actions allows a preschooler to control his behavior and overcome his impulsiveness. Preschoolers often are not aware of exactly what they are doing and how they are doing it. Their own actions pass by their consciousness. The child is inside an objective situation and cannot answer the question of what he did, what he played, how and why. In order to “move away from himself”, to see what, how and why he is doing, the child needs a fulcrum that goes beyond the specifically perceived situation. It can be in the past (previously promised someone, wanted to do what he already did), in the future (what will happen if he does something), in a rule or pattern of action for comparing his actions with him, or in a moral norm (to be good, you need to do just that).
In preschool age, a child needs external support to regulate his behavior.
External support that helps the child manage his behavior is playing a role in the game. In this activity, the rules seem to apply to the preschooler not directly, but through a role. The image of an adult motivates the child’s actions and helps him understand them. Therefore, preschoolers quite easily follow the rules in role-playing games, although they can break them in life.
Awareness of the rules not of the role, but of one’s own personal behavior occurs in children starting at age 4, primarily in games with rules. The child begins to understand that if the rules are not followed, then results cannot be achieved and the game will not work. Therefore, he is faced with the question: “How should one behave?”
For an older preschooler, the basis for regulating his behavior and activities is his image of himself in time (what I wanted to do, what I am doing or did, what I will do).
The development of voluntariness is associated with the child’s awareness of individual components of the activity and of himself during its implementation (S.N. Rubtsova). At 4 years old, the child identifies the object of activity and the purpose of its transformation. By the age of 5, he understands the interdependence of different components of activity. The child identifies not only goals and objects, but also ways of acting with them. By the age of 6, the experience of constructing activities begins to become generalized. The formation of voluntary actions can be judged primarily by the activity and initiative of the child himself (G.G. Kravtsov and others). He not only follows the teacher’s instructions: “Go wash your hands,” “Put away the toys,” “Draw a cat,” but he himself acts as a source, an initiator of goals: “Let’s go play in the doll’s corner,” “Let’s dance in a circle.” That is, an indicator of voluntariness is the relative independence of a preschooler from an adult in setting goals, planning and organizing his actions, in understanding himself not as a performer, but as a doer. After all, often a child who motivates the need to follow a moral norm by citing an adult’s requirement easily violates it in independent activities, in the absence of external control. In this case, we can talk about the lack of formation of the internal mechanism for regulating one’s actions. Arbitrariness also presupposes the ability to bring meaning to one’s actions, to understand why they are being performed, and to take into account one’s past experience. So, if children can imagine how happy their mother will be with the gift she is making, then it is easier to complete the work.
Let us indicate the features of the development of will in preschool age:
- children develop goal setting, struggle and subordination of motives, planning, self-control in activity and behavior;
- the ability to exert volition develops;
- voluntariness develops in the sphere of movements, actions, cognitive processes and communication with adults.
Under by will is understood conscious regulation by a person of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome difficulties in achieving a goal.
The essential components of volitional action are the emergence of motivation, awareness and struggle of motives, decision making and execution. Volitional action is generally characterized by purposefulness, as a person’s conscious focus on a specific result of activity. The first stage of volitional action is associated with initiative, expressed in setting your own goals, and independence, manifested in the ability to resist the influence of other people. Determination characterizes the stage of struggle of motives and decision making. Overcoming obstacles in achieving goals at the execution stage is reflected in a conscious volitional effort, which involves the mobilization of one’s forces.
The most important acquisition of preschool age is the transformation of the child’s behavior from “field” to “volitional” (A.N. Leontyev). Main characteristics "field" behavior of a preschooler - impulsiveness And situationality. The child acts without thinking, under the influence of spontaneously arising experiences. And the goals and content of his activity are determined by external objects, components of the situation in which the baby is. So, having seen the doll, the child begins to feed it. If a book comes into his field of vision, he immediately throws the doll and begins to enthusiastically look at the pictures.
Around 3 years of age, in connection with the development of personal action and self-awareness, the preschooler has personal desires that cause his activity, which are expressed in the form: “I want” or "I Don't want". Their appearance marks the beginning of the formation of will, when situational dependence in behavior and activity is overcome. Now the child receives relative freedom from the situation, the ability to “stand” above it. Behavior and activity in preschool age change not only in content, but also in structure, when their more complex organization takes shape.
§ 1. Development of volitional action in preschool age
At preschool age, the formation of volitional action occurs. The child masters goal setting, planning, and control.
Volitional action begins with setting a goal. A preschooler masters goal setting - the ability to set goals for an activity. Elementary purposefulness is already observed in an infant (A.V. Zaporozhets, N.M. Shchelovanov). He reaches out to the toy that interests him, looking for it if it goes beyond his field of vision. But such goals are set from the outside (by the subject).
In connection with the development of independence, the child already in early childhood (at the age of about 2 years) begins to strive for a goal, but it is achieved only with the help of an adult. The emergence of personal desires leads to the emergence of “internal” purposefulness, determined by the aspirations and needs of the baby himself. But in a preschooler, purposefulness manifests itself more in setting rather than achieving goals. Under the influence of external circumstances and situations, the child easily gives up the goal and replaces it with another.
In a preschooler, goal setting develops through independent, proactive goal setting, which changes in content with age. Younger preschoolers set goals related to their personal interests and immediate desires. And elders can set goals that are important not only for them, but also for those around them. As L.S. Vygotsky emphasized, the most characteristic of volitional action is the free choice of a goal, one’s behavior, determined not by external circumstances, but motivated by the child himself. Motive, motivating children to activity, explains why this or that goal is chosen.
From about 3 years of age, a child’s behavior is increasingly prompted by motives that, replacing each other, are reinforced or come into conflict.
At preschool age, a relationship of motives with each other develops - their subordination. A leading motive is identified, which determines the behavior of a preschooler, subordinating other motives. We emphasize that the system of motives is easily violated under the influence of a strong emotional impulse, which leads to a violation of well-known rules. For example, a child, rushing to see what gift his grandmother brought, forgets to say hello to her, although in other situations he always greets adults and peers.
Based on the subordination of motives, the baby has the opportunity to consciously subordinate his actions to a distant motive (A.N. Leontyev). For example, make a drawing to please your mother at the upcoming holiday. That is, the child’s behavior begins to be mediated by the ideal represented model (“How happy mother will be when she receives a drawing as a gift”). The connection of motives with the idea of an object or situation makes it possible to attribute an action to the future.
The subordination of motives occurs on the basis of their struggle. In early childhood, the struggle of motives and, consequently, their subordination is absent. The preschooler simply obeys a stronger motive. An attractive goal directly causes him to take action. The preschooler recognizes the struggle of motives as an internal conflict, experiences it, understanding the need to choose.
Let's give an example.
A nanny sometimes comes to Dasha N. (5 years 3 months). The girl treats her well, always greets her joyfully and does not forget to say “goodbye.” One day, when the nanny was leaving, Dasha did not come out to see her off, she hid, looked into the corridor and ran away again. When the nanny left, mom asked Dasha why she didn’t say goodbye to the nanny. The girl explained: “I pushed Rosa Vasilyevna. I was ashamed to approach her. And now I’m ashamed... I’m ashamed that I didn’t tell her goodbye.”
The subordination of motives in a preschooler, as shown by A.N. Leontiev’s research, initially occurs in a direct social situation of communication with an adult. The balance of motives is set by the elder’s demands and is controlled by the adult. And only later the subordination of motives appears when objective circumstances require it. Now a preschooler can strive to achieve an unattractive goal for the sake of something else that is meaningful to him. Or he may give up something pleasant in order to achieve something more important or avoid something undesirable. As a result, the child’s individual actions acquire a complex, as if reflected, meaning.
Pasha N. (5 years 7 months), running past, pushed Maxim D. (6 years). Maxim caught up with Pasha and pushed him too. In another situation, Maxim D. saw that Seryozha D. (6 years 7 months) was beating a baby. He approached the offender and began to push, repeating: “Don’t touch the little ones!”
Thus, the child’s behavior turns into extra-situational personal behavior and loses its spontaneity. It is directed by the idea of the object, and not by the object itself, that is, an ideal motivation appears, for example, a moral norm becomes the motive.
The motives of a preschooler are impulsive and unconscious. They are mainly associated with objective activities and communication with adults.
Expanding the boundaries of a preschooler’s life activity leads to the development of motives that affect the spheres of attitude towards the world around him, other people and himself.
The motives of a preschooler not only become more diverse, they are recognized by children and acquire different motivating powers.
Children aged 3-7 years have a pronounced interest in the content and process of new types of activities: drawing, labor, design, and especially play. Play motives retain significant motivating force throughout preschool age. They presuppose the child’s desire to “enter” an imaginary situation and act according to its laws. Therefore, in a didactic game, knowledge is acquired most successfully, and the creation of an imaginary situation makes it easier to fulfill the requirements of an adult.
In preschool childhood, children develop an interest in new, more important, more “adult” types of activities (reading and counting) and a desire to perform them, which is caused by the formation of the prerequisites for educational activities.
At the age of 3-7 years, cognitive motives intensively develop. According to N.M. Matyushina and A.N. Golubeva, at 3-4 years old children often replace cognitive tasks with play tasks. And in children 4-7 years old, persistence is observed in solving mental problems, which gradually increases. In older preschoolers, cognitive motives are increasingly separated from play motives.
In older preschool age, cognitive motives come to the fore in didactic games. Children receive satisfaction from solving not only a gaming problem, but also a mental one, from the intellectual efforts with which these problems were solved.
In the sphere of self-relationship, the preschooler’s desire for self-affirmation and recognition sharply increases, which is due to the need to realize his personal significance, value, and uniqueness. And the older the child, the more important it is for him to recognize not only adults, but also other children.
Let's give an example.
Maxim D. (5 years 11 months) was sledding down a hill. Having rolled down again, he stopped near two boys of 7-8 years old. When they saw Maxim, they smiled, and one of them said: “Look, what kind of bun has come to us.” Maxim immediately jumped up, ran to his mother and began to hurriedly say: “Let's get out of here. I don't want to ride anymore! "Why do you want to leave?" - Mom asked. “They called me a bun,” the boy replied with resentment in his voice.
Motives associated with a child’s claim to recognition are expressed (at the age of 4-7 years) in competitiveness and rivalry. Preschoolers want to be better than other children and always achieve good results in their activities.
For example, children draw. The teacher takes Olya’s (5 years 4 months) drawing and says: “Look how beautiful Olya’s drawing is!” “Beautiful,” confirms Ksyusha O. (5 years and a month) and continues: “Only she copied my Christmas tree.”
By the age of 6-7 years, the child begins to have a more adequate attitude towards his achievements and see the successes of other children.
If the motives associated with the child’s claim to recognition among adults and children are not satisfied, if the child is constantly scolded or not noticed, given offensive nicknames, not taken into play, etc., he may exhibit antisocial forms of behavior leading to violations rules The child seeks to attract the attention of other people through negative actions.
Let's show it with an example.
Seryozha P. (5 years old) recently went to kindergarten and does not yet know how to do much. He is especially bad at drawing. The boy chooses a beautiful combination of colors, but he lacks technical skills. Over the course of five lessons, the teacher, analyzing children's works, emphasized Seryozha's failures and constantly praised the drawings of Lena, who was sitting next to him. One day, after another positive assessment of Lenin’s drawing, Seryozha said: “So what, I can do that too!” - and sharply pulled the drawing towards him. The drawing is torn.
Older preschoolers strive to maintain positive relationships with peers and perform common activities. Moreover, the motives for communicating with friends in children 5-7 years old are so strong that the child often gives up his personal interests in order to maintain contacts, for example, agrees to an unattractive role, refuses a toy.
Let's give an example.
Maxim D. (5 years 4 months) became friends with Oleg V. (6 years). The children always played together. One day, Oleg’s brother Vanya (8 years old) joined them. He tried to attract the attention of the younger ones, showed them various toys and, in the end, began to pour water on Maxim. After several attempts to dodge the stream of water, Maxim splashed Vanya himself. Vanya’s mother saw this, reprimanded Maxim and took the brothers to another play area. His mother approached Maxim. “Maxim, did you quarrel?” - she asked. The boy replied: “Vanya was the first to wet himself... But I’ll still go and apologize.” - “But it’s not your fault!” - “So what, it’s not your fault. I'll apologize anyway. I want to be allowed to play with Olezhka.”
The preschooler's interest in the world of adults expands; more clearly than in early childhood, the desire to join it and act like an adult is manifested. These unconditionally positive motives can lead to the child violating the rules of behavior and to actions that are condemned by elders.
For example, the father of five-year-old Gosha A. was painting a window. Without finishing his work, he went into another room to talk on the phone, and when he returned, he saw that Gosha had “painted” not only the window sill, the radiator, the wall next to the window (“So that they were beautiful”), but also himself.
Considering the high motivating power of motives associated with the desire to be like an adult, it is necessary to show the child where and how he can show his “adulthood”, entrust him with some harmless, but serious and important task, “which no one can do well without him.” . And when assessing his action, which at first glance is obviously negative, it is necessary first of all to find out the motive that caused it.
Throughout preschool age, the motives of encouragement and punishment, which are associated with the desire to maintain positive relationships with adults “to be good,” make pedagogical assessment effective. For children 3-4 years old, these motives are most effective. Older preschoolers successfully overcome their own personal aspirations not only for the sake of receiving encouragement or avoiding punishment, but also for moral purposes.
The most important acquisition in the motivational sphere of preschool children, along with the subordination of motives, is development of moral motives. At 3-4 years of age, moral motives are either absent or only slightly influence the outcome of the struggle of motives. At the age of 4-5 they are already characteristic of a significant part of children. And at the age of 5-7 years, moral motives become especially effective. By the age of 7, moral motives become decisive in their motivating power. That is, social requirements turn into the needs of the child himself. But throughout preschool age, the following features of the struggle of motives remain. As before, the child performs many impulsive actions under the influence of strong emotions. For an older preschooler, it is possible to suppress affect, although with difficulty. Motives associated with organic needs are difficult to overcome; the conflict most clearly arises between social and personal motives; the choice between them is acutely experienced by the child.
A preschooler is able to exert volitional effort to achieve a goal. Purposefulness develops as a strong-willed quality and an important character trait.
Maintaining and achieving a goal depends on a number of conditions. Firstly, on the difficulty of the task and the duration of its completion. If the task is complex, then additional reinforcement is needed in the form of instructions, questions, advice from an adult, or visual support.
Secondly, from successes and failures in activity. After all, the result is a visual reinforcement of volitional action. At 3-4 years old, successes and failures do not affect the child’s volitional action. Middle preschoolers experience success or failure in their activities. Failures affect her negatively and do not stimulate perseverance. And success always has a positive effect. A more complex ratio is typical for children 5-7 years old. Success encourages overcoming difficulties. But for some children, failure has the same effect. An interest in overcoming difficulties arises. And failure to complete a task is assessed negatively by older preschoolers (N.M. Matyushina, A.N. Golubeva).
Thirdly, from the attitude of the adult, which involves evaluating the child’s actions. An objective, friendly assessment from an adult helps the child mobilize his strength and achieve results.
Fourthly, from the ability to imagine in advance the future attitude towards the result of one’s activities (N.I. Nepomnyashchaya). (For example, making paper mats was more successful when an adult or other children made demands on these gifts on behalf of the persons for whom the gifts were intended.)
Fifthly, on the motivation of the goal, on the relationship between motives and goals. A preschooler achieves a goal more successfully when motivated by play, and also when the closest goal is set. (Ya.Z. Neverovich, studying the influence of different motives on the activities of preschool children, showed that she was more active when the children made a flag for the kids and a napkin for the mother. If the situation changed (the napkin was intended for the kids, and the flag for the mother), the children very often did not complete the task, they were constantly distracted. They did not understand why mother needed a flag, and the kids needed a napkin.) Gradually, the preschooler moves on to internal regulation of actions that become voluntary. The development of voluntariness involves the formation of a child’s focus on his own external or internal actions, as a result of which the ability to control himself is born (A.N. Leontyev, E.O. Smirnova). The development of voluntariness occurs in different areas of the psyche, in different types of activity of a preschooler.
After 3 years, arbitrariness in the sphere of movements is intensively formed (A.V. Zaporozhets). The acquisition of motor skills in a preschooler is a by-product of objective activity. For the first time in a preschooler, mastery of movements becomes the goal of activity. Gradually they turn into manageable ones, controlled by the child on the basis of a sensorimotor image. The child consciously tries to reproduce the characteristic movements of a certain character and convey to him special manners.
The self-control mechanism is built according to the type of control of external objective actions and movements. The task of maintaining a motionless posture is not available to children 3-4 years old. At 4-5 years old, behavior is controlled under the control of vision. Therefore, the child is easily distracted by external factors. At 5-6 years old, preschoolers use some techniques to avoid distractions. They control their behavior under the control of motor sensations. Self-management takes on the features of an automatically occurring process. At 6-7 years old, children maintain a motionless posture for a long time, and this no longer requires continuous effort from them (Z.V. Manuylenko).
In older preschool age, mental processes occurring in the internal mental plane begin to acquire features of voluntariness: memory, thinking, imagination, perception and speech (Z.M. Istomina, N.G. Agenosova, A.V. Zaporozhets, etc.).
By the age of 6-7 years, arbitrariness develops in the sphere of communication with adults (E.E. Kravtsova).
Indicators of arbitrariness of communication are attitudes towards the requests and tasks of an adult, the ability to accept them and carry them out according to the proposed rules. Children can retain the context of communication and understand the duality of the adult’s position as a participant in common activities and a source of rules.
Awareness and mediation- these are the main characteristics of arbitrariness.
At the age of about 2 years, all the baby’s behavior becomes mediated and controlled first by the adult’s speech, and then by his own. That is, already in early childhood, the word mediates the child’s behavior, causes or inhibits his reactions. Understanding the meaning of a word allows a child to follow quite complex instructions and demands from an adult. The child begins to record his action in a word, which means he is aware of it.
For a preschooler, the word becomes a means of mastering his behavior, making possible independent speech mediation in various types of activities.
Speech connects current events with the past and future in time. It allows the preschooler to go beyond what he perceives at the moment. Speech helps to master one’s activities and behavior through planning, which acts as a way of self-regulation. When planning, the child creates in speech form a model, a program of his actions, when he outlines their goal, conditions, means, methods and sequence. The ability to plan one’s activities is formed only with training from an adult. Initially, the child masters it as the activity progresses. And then planning moves to its beginning, beginning to precede execution.
Another characteristic of voluntary action is awareness, or awareness. Awareness of one's own actions allows a preschooler to control his behavior and overcome his impulsiveness. Preschoolers often are not aware of exactly what they are doing and how they are doing it. Their own actions pass by their consciousness. The child is inside an objective situation and cannot answer the question of what he did, what he played, how and why. In order to “move away from himself”, to see what, how and why he is doing, the child needs a fulcrum that goes beyond the specifically perceived situation. It can be in the past (previously promised someone, wanted to do what he already did), in the future (what will happen if he does something), in a rule or pattern of action for comparing his actions with him, or in a moral norm (to be good, you need to do just that).
In preschool age, a child needs external support to regulate his behavior.
Oleg S. (6 years 7 months) really wanted to ride a bike, but renting a bike for 15 minutes. cost 1000 rubles. He asked his dad for money and rode his bike. A few minutes later Oleg began asking for money again. Then dad offered him the following solution to the problem: “Renting a bicycle costs 1000 rubles, we will rest here for 25 days. I'll give you 25 thousand rubles. You can spend them in one day, or you can ride every day for 15 minutes. Choose what you like best." That day the boy rode his bike 4 more times. The next day - only two, and then every day I rode once. Moreover, he took money out of his wallet, counted it, put it back in the wallet, finding out how many more times he could go for a ride.
External support that helps a child manage his behavior is playing a role in the game. In this activity, the rules seem to apply to the preschooler not directly, but through a role. The image of an adult motivates the child’s actions and helps him understand them. Therefore, preschoolers quite easily follow the rules in role-playing games, although they can break them in life.
Awareness of the rules not of role-playing, but of one’s own personal behavior occurs in a child starting from the age of 4, primarily in games with rules. The child begins to understand that if the rules are not followed, then results cannot be achieved and the game will not work. Therefore, he is faced with the question: “How should one behave?”
For an older preschooler, the basis for regulating his behavior and activities is his image of himself in time (what I wanted to do, what I am doing or did, what I will do).
The development of voluntariness is associated with the child’s awareness of individual components of the activity and of himself during its implementation (S.N. Rubtsova). At 4 years old, the child identifies the object of activity and the purpose of its transformation. By the age of 5, he understands the interdependence of different components of activity. The child identifies not only goals and objects, but also ways of acting with them. By the age of 6, the experience of constructing activities begins to become generalized. The formation of voluntary actions can be judged primarily by the activity and initiative of the child himself (G.G. Kravtsov and others). He not only follows the teacher’s instructions: “Go wash your hands,” “Put away the toys,” “Draw a cat,” but he himself acts as a source, an initiator of goals: “Let’s go play in the doll’s corner,” “Let’s dance in a circle.” That is, an indicator of voluntariness is the relative independence of a preschooler from an adult in setting goals, planning and organizing his actions, in understanding himself not as a performer, but as a doer. After all, often a child who motivates the need to follow a moral norm by citing an adult’s requirement easily violates it in independent activities, in the absence of external control. In this case, we can talk about the lack of formation of the internal mechanism for regulating one’s actions. Arbitrariness also presupposes the ability to bring meaning to one’s actions, to understand why they are being performed, and to take into account one’s past experience. So, if children can imagine how happy their mother will be with the gift she is making, then it is easier to complete the work.
In preschool age, based on self-esteem and self-control, self-regulation of one’s own activities arises. The first prerequisites for controlling one’s behavior arise in preschoolers and are caused by the desire for independence. In preschool age, self-control is formed in connection with the awareness of the rules, the result and the method of action, if the child is faced with the need to explain his actions in detail, to independently find and correct mistakes. In the development of self-control in a preschooler, two lines stand out. These include mastering self-testing techniques and developing the need to check and correct one’s work. Preschoolers do not have sufficient knowledge of error detection actions, and it is very difficult for them to realize the very fact of the relationship between the actions performed and the model. Usually they understand the adult’s requirements well, but cannot correlate their activities with them (I. Domashenko). Most often, children resort to self-testing when the teacher demands it. The need for self-control appears if the child encounters difficulties and has doubts about the correctness of the work being performed.
Throughout preschool age, children are attracted not by the methods of performing an activity, but by its result.
Sveta M. (4 years 11 months) is building a house from blocks. The teacher approaches her.
Educator: Sveta, check your work.
Sveta: I'll check it when I build it.
Educator: Why are you going to check?
Sveta: So that it doesn’t turn out crookedly.
At the age of 5-7 years, self-control begins to act as a special activity aimed at improving work and eliminating its shortcomings. But still, children are easier to control their peers than themselves.
We emphasize that even children of older preschool age without the direct guidance of an adult may not have the need for self-control.
This is how many of them answer the teacher’s question: “Will you check your work and when?”
“I won’t check. Why? (Lena V., 5 years 6 months)
“I don’t want to check. I want to do something." (Maxim N., 6 years old.)
Self-control develops most successfully in a situation of mutual control by preschoolers of each other (A.M. Bogush, E.A. Bugrimenko, I. Domashenko). During mutual testing, when children change the functions of “performer” and “controller,” they become more demanding of their work, the desire to do it better, and the desire to compare it with the work of others. That is, the situation of mutual control provides an incentive for mastering self-control, which requires the ability to correlate the activity being performed with the rule.
Let us indicate the features of the development of will in preschool age:
Children develop goal setting, struggle and subordination of motives, planning, self-control in activity and behavior;
- the ability to exert volition develops;
- arbitrariness develops in the sphere of movements, actions, cognitive processes And communication with adults.
Introduction
Theoretical aspects of the formation of volitional qualities in preschool children
1.1 The concept of will and volitional qualities
2 Age-related features of the formation of volitional qualities in preschoolers
2. Experimental study of volitional qualities in older preschoolers
2.1 Study of the initial level of formation of volitional qualities in older preschool children
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
The development of will continues throughout a person’s life. But, as studies by psychologists and teachers show, it is necessary to begin work on the formation of will from preschool age, since it is at this age that the processes are most mobile and changeable. By performing various types of activities, while overcoming external and internal obstacles, the child gradually develops strong-willed qualities: purposefulness, determination, independence, initiative, perseverance, endurance, discipline, courage. Will is one of the most important characteristics of personal development. Therefore, teachers and parents should pay significant attention to the formation of this particular personality quality.
1. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF FORMATION OF VOLITIONAL QUALITIES IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
1.1 The concept of will and volitional qualities
Will is a person’s ability to perform deliberate actions aimed at achieving goals, consciously regulate their activities and manage their own behavior. The beginning of the development of the problem of will in Soviet psychology is associated with the name of K. N. Kornilov, who in the 30s formulated the basic principles of the theory of will and the development of volitional activity in childhood.
Will at the present stage of development of science is a phenomenon that is associated with virtually all basic psychological concepts, such as thinking, emotions, character, temperament, abilities, motivation, etc.
In our opinion, the definition of will given by P. A. Rudik looks most complete. He associates will with the ability to take “deliberate actions aimed at achieving goals, consciously regulate one’s activities and manage one’s own behavior.”
S. L. Rubinstein especially emphasized such a quality as initiative. It, in his opinion, distinguishes active people, from whom come various undertakings and new impulses for others. Initiative also includes the desire to take initiative in an unusual environment and active participation in the affairs of the team.
A.I. Vysotsky also included the following as volitional properties:
discipline
independence
endurance
determination
perseverance
organization:.
Among the existing classifications, we can note the approach of V.K. Kalin, which considers qualities according to their inclusion in the regulation of activity, where the main processes are increasing, decreasing and maintaining the required level of activity. Accordingly, according to the degree of participation in these processes, basal volitional qualities are distinguished:
energy: the ability to raise the level of activity to the required level;
patience: maintaining a certain level of activity;
endurance: ability to restrain oneself;
courage - maintaining resilience to maintain effective activity. Other qualities are systemic, complex in their origin and functioning. Thus, various researchers propose structuring volitional qualities depending on their inclusion in certain activities. The structure includes leading, proximate and supporting volitional properties.
The general synthesizing property of will is considered to be its strength. To a greater extent it manifests itself general ability person to volitional actions. At the everyday level, the expression “weak-willed” or “strong-willed person” is often used.
1.2 Age-related features of the formation of volitional qualities in preschoolers
The task of the will is to control one’s own behavior, conscious self-regulation of activity. This self-regulation is based on the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition of the nervous system. The peculiarity of volitional behavior is that a person internally experiences the state of “I must,” and not “I want.” It is the conscious purposefulness of actions that characterizes volitional behavior.
E. O. Smirnova identified the following five main stages in the development of will in children (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 - Stages of development of will in children
AgeFactorForms of manifestationConditions of occurrenceFirst yearImage of an objectObject-manipulative activityEmotional communication with an adult about an objectEarly age (1-3 years)Word of an adultFollowing instructionsVerbal emotional communication with an adultYounger preschool age (3-5 years)Image of an adult playing roleRole play and actions with “social material”Experience of social contacts, development of speech mediation Preschool age (3-6 years) Rule of action Solving cognitive problems, behavior in different situations Games with rules, joint with adults and peers Senior preschool age (5-6 years) Pattern of one’s behavior over time Free, unregulated behavior Non-situational-personal communication with adults
Preschool age is recognized as the most important and responsible period for the formation of volitional qualities.
Most domestic psychologists, continuing and developing the concept of L.S. Vygotsky, consider the mental development of a child as acceptance from an adult and appropriation of cultural forms of behavior, patterns and methods of human activity. Only as a result of such assimilation do the child’s own activities, abilities and needs arise. Thus, in studies conducted under the leadership of M. I. Lisina, an adult acts for a child not only as a bearer of means and methods of activity, but also as a real, living personification of those motivational and semantic levels that he does not yet possess. He can rise to these levels only together with an adult - through communication, joint activities, general experiences.
A number of studies devoted to age-related patterns in the formation of voluntary behavior in preschoolers show that:
if the child accompanies each link of verbal instructions with indicative actions (pointing gesture, etc.), that is, correlates the instructions with the object of the action, then subsequent execution of the instructions becomes possible even for children 3-4 years old;
the child’s ability to act voluntarily—to obey an adult’s instructions, which require overcoming the immediate impulse to action—is formed by the age of four;
Children under 5 years of age, as a rule, subordinate their actions to situational circumstances rather than words. To guide the child in his actions with verbal instructions, it is necessary to create special conditions;
In an older preschooler, voluntariness is formed, first of all, in play activities that are leading for preschoolers.
Until the age of two, children cannot reproduce an action familiar to them without a real object of action (for example, without having a spoon, show how to use it). Therefore, an essential step in the development of voluntariness is the formation of the ability to imagine missing objects, due to which the child’s behavior is determined not only by the present situation , but also represented. As a result, the time it takes to maintain the goal of action given to the child increases, which creates the preconditions for setting goals independently at an older age.
S. L. Rubinstein notes that it would be wrong to consider small children incapable of self-control and to portray them as little savages who live by instincts and impulsive drives that cannot be curbed. Already in the third year of life, children demonstrate self-control. It manifests itself in the refusal to do something pleasant, as well as in the determination to do something unpleasant if necessary. Around this time (3-4 years), the child begins to understand that it is not always possible to do what you want. This means that children are capable of self-restraint. At the same time, it is still difficult for them to make a choice (for example, between two toys).
By the age of 3, and sometimes earlier, children show a pronounced desire for independence. “I myself,” the baby demands, violently protesting against the intervention and help of his parents. To a small child It is much more difficult to obey a command not to do something than a command to do something else. Therefore, it is more profitable for adults to express their demands not in negative, but in positive form“You’re already a big girl, show me how you can do it.” Children 3 years old show restraint and patience if this promises them pleasure. The ability to postpone an action to a later time is already an indicator of the development of the will of 3-4 year old children. The lack of development of this quality is an indicator of a certain lag in the development of volitional actions in children.
From the age of 4, control over one’s actions develops. At the 4-5th year of life, children show obedience, due to the awakening sense of duty in children and, in case of failure to fulfill any duty, a feeling of guilt before adults. By the age of 4-5, the ability to gradually overcome the impulsiveness of one’s behavior appears. A five-year-old child can already act deliberately. The child does in volitional development big step forward: he begins to take on tasks and act from the consciousness of the need to complete the task.
By the age of 5-6, the child carries out speech planning, strives to follow the rules of the game and behavior, encourages adults and peers to do as he intended, makes efforts, correlates goals and results. The child gradually becomes emancipated in his actions from direct influences. material environment, the basis of the action is no longer only sensual impulses, thoughts, but also a moral feeling, the action itself receives a certain meaning through this and becomes an act.
Six-year-old children can show initiative in choosing a goal, independence, and perseverance, but mainly when their actions are accompanied by emotions of joy, surprise or grief. In children of senior preschool age, the words “must,” “can,” and “cannot” become the basis for self-regulation when they are mentally pronounced by the child himself. This is the child's first independent manifestation of willpower.
However, preschoolers are also characterized by a negative manifestation of willpower, expressed in stubbornness, negativism and whims (willfulness). Stubbornness arises both when a child’s freedom and independence are sharply limited (as self-defense on the part of the child), and when he is completely neglected (he gets used to acting only according to his own desire).
By the end of preschool age, the basic elements of volitional action are formed - the child is able to set a goal, make a decision, outline a plan of action, carry it out, show a certain effort in overcoming an obstacle, and evaluate the result of his action. Will becomes a component psychological readiness to school. But all components of volitional action are not yet sufficiently developed. And adults should take this into account, observing a gradual increase in requirements for children, based on their capabilities, interests, and needs.
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF VOLITIONAL QUALITIES IN SENIOR PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
.1 Study of the initial level of formation of volitional qualities in older preschool children
Research base. An experimental study of the formation of volitional qualities of preschoolers was carried out on the basis of the municipal preschool educational institution of the Child Development Center - kindergarten No. 3 “Petushok” in the Strezhevoy urban district. Address: 636780, Strezhevoy, 3 microdistrict, no. 326.
Study sample. IN experimental study 21 children (10 boys and 11 girls) from preparatory group"Bells".
The examination technique is the method of R. M. Gevorkyan for diagnosing the characteristics of the manifestation of will in preschool children, in the form of observation according to a compiled table.
The volitional manifestations of a preschooler are observed by the experimenter in various types of his activities. They will be different depending on which component of volitional action or volitional quality we want to study. Thus, when studying voluntary activity in a game, it is important to take into account such features as the child’s independent choice of the theme of the game and planning its course; choosing means to implement the game plan, coordinating one’s actions with the actions of peers, demonstrating efforts in overcoming difficulties, etc.
During participant observation, the experimenter fills out an observation form. Using this method, you can obtain indicators of the formation of such volitional qualities as determination, perseverance, endurance, determination, independence, and initiative. Each indicator corresponds to five characteristics.
Processing the results. Manifestations of signs of volitional quality in a preschooler are assessed as follows:
rarely: 1 point;
sometimes: 2 points;
often: 3 points.
For each volitional quality, a child can receive from 5 to 15 points.
The scoring method is converted into a level assessment:
5-8 points: low level of formation of volitional quality;
9-12 points: average level of development of volitional quality;
13-15 points: high level of formation of volitional quality.
The results of the observation we carried out are recorded in Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1.
Table 2.1 - Results of diagnostics of the initial level of formation of volitional qualities in older preschool children, points
Child PurposefulnessPerseveranceDecisionSelf-stityInitiativeAlyosha R.685876Arina K.888888Arina S.6951078Arina S.765677Artem Ch.11979109Vanya Z.911510109Dana D.575855Dasha V.1211611118I man I.565785Katya D.987888Kirill B.887888Ksyusha Sh.795878Lenya K.10989119Linar M.895988Linar S.785887Misha K.119891110Nastya D.995899Ruslan S.686877Sonya G.787878Sonya Yu.895798Stas A.910891010∑ (sum)168179127176176165∑/n (average) 8,08,56,08,48,47,9
On average for the group, there is a low level of formation of such volitional qualities as endurance, initiative, determination, etc. At the lower limit of the average level, in the group of older preschoolers are such volitional qualities as determination, independence and perseverance.
If we interpret the individual results for each child, we get the following picture (Table 2.2, Figure 2.2).
Table 2.2 - Individual results of the formation of volitional qualities in the group of older preschoolers
PurposefulnessPersistenceResolvedSelf-stityInitiativeHigh level------Medium level811-886Low level131021131315
Rice. 2.2. Individual results of the development of volitional qualities in a group of older preschoolers, %
Thus, we got the following results:
In the group of older preschoolers, there are no children with high rates of development of certain volitional qualities.
8 children - 38.1% of the group - have an average degree of determination; persistence of 11 children - 52.4% of the group; determination of 8 children - 38% of the group; independence of 8 children - 38.1% of the group; initiative of 6 children - 28.6% of the group.
In terms of endurance, children did not receive a single average score, 100% of low scores.
The results obtained indicate that the basic volitional qualities are poorly formed in the group of subjects. At the same time, such qualities as purposefulness, perseverance, endurance, determination, independence, initiative will very soon be needed by children in connection with the upcoming schooling, and with the identified level of formation of volitional qualities, children will be unable to solve educational problems. Purposeful work is needed in a group of older preschoolers to develop strong-willed qualities.
strong-willed quality preschooler teacher
Will is one of the most important characteristics of personal development. That is why both teachers and parents should pay significant attention to the formation of this particular personality quality.
The following pedagogical conditions contribute to the formation of a child’s volitional behavior:
gradually increasing the requirements for the child, helping him achieve success in his activities;
encouraging the child’s desire and readiness to demonstrate independence and initiative;
a gradual transition from tasks related to fulfilling the requirements of an adult according to his direct instructions, to creative tasks By at will child;
creating conditions for the implementation of the child’s leading position in creative activity and in class.
The teacher is called upon to help the child realize his desires, the demands of adults, use them in different ways to get out of a difficult situation, using an analysis of its causes, in finding rational ways to achieve a goal, and choosing the most optimal one from alternative types of behavior.
We believe that practitioners should pay attention to following methods impact.
Carefully monitor how the child shows independence, notice and in every possible way support any signs of it.
If a child declares “I myself” and clearly claims to do something on his own, without interference from people around him, then you should not actively interfere in his affairs, except, of course, in cases where the child may unwittingly harm himself or spoil any valuable thing. But even in these cases, an adult’s intervention in the child’s affairs should be unobtrusive and, if possible, invisible to the child himself.
The child’s independence should be especially welcomed when the child tries to do something as best as possible, while showing initiative and perseverance, desire and willingness to overcome obstacles. Encouragement should take place even if the child tried to do something himself, but failed. The main thing is that in the mind of the child himself, the rewards he receives are associated precisely with effort, and not only and not so much with highly appreciated adults of his abilities.
In the practice of pedagogical communication with a child, rewards should dominate over punishments, which in turn plays an important role in the development of his volitional qualities. This communication practice creates favorable conditions to strengthen the motive to achieve success associated with will.
The volitional qualities of a preschooler’s personality are best formed in leading activities. This is play, learning, communication and work, with the dominance of play over other activities in psychological development child. Therefore, in preschool age, it is most important to create favorable conditions for improving strong-willed character traits in various games, requiring perseverance and will on the part of the child to achieve the goals set in the game.
A positive role in the development of will in preschool age is played by the child’s games and competitions with other children and with adults.
Role-playing games occupy an important place in stimulating the adequate process of will formation in preschoolers. Moreover, the role is understood as the form of participation of the child in those situations in which other people are present. Role-playing games involve the child accepting roles that are different in content and status, playing roles that are opposite to the usual ones, and playing his role in a grotesque version. Children are involved in role-playing voice actions (meow like a scared kitten, like an angry kitten, like a joyful kitten, etc.), as well as finger games. During role-playing play, the child learns to set goals (even if they are “toy” goals related to the rules of the game) and strive to achieve them. A striking example The game “Kitten” (for preschoolers) can serve as a similar game for preschoolers. Children imagine that their mother brought home a kitten that is scared, sad and completely joyless. Each child takes turns turning into a kitten, the others pet him and say kind words.
Constructive object-based games, which appear first in a child’s age-related development, contribute to the accelerated formation of voluntary regulation of actions.
Role-playing games lead to the strengthening of the child’s necessary volitional personality traits.
In addition to this task, collective games with rules solve another problem: strengthening the self-regulation of actions.
Art as a method of forming the will of preschoolers allows the child not only to experience a sense of beauty, develops in him a sense of color and space, but can also stimulate the development of such personal characteristics, as self-consciousness, thinking and will, which is the object of our detailed study. psychology. When working on hand positioning, children are asked to perform many repeating strokes, circles, etc. It should be noted that a significant expenditure of volitional effort occurs in order to achieve a smooth transition from one line to another, light paint to dark, etc.
All the proposed methods develop the active orientation of the individual and cultivate strong-willed qualities.
Age aspects should also be taken into account formation of volitional qualities of preschool children: the main method of educating the volitional behavior of young children is to set competent demands on them in various forms (demand-trust, demand-request, demand-advice), motivating them, which ensures the development of awareness; in early preschool age, manifestations of whims and stubbornness are possible. The child should be taught obedience - the ability to obey elders, to carry out the tasks, advice, and instructions assigned by them, since he cannot yet understand the meaning of what is required of him, but acts according to a model, submitting to the authority of an adult. Manifestations of his obedience have signs of moral behavior, the essence of which is trust in an adult; In middle preschool age, with the development of self-awareness, obedience gradually develops into discipline. It is especially important in instilling discipline to show the importance of correct behavior: a person who knows how to organize his life and activities achieves success in all matters. in older preschool age, children should be brought to understand the significance of adults’ demands and consciously fulfill them. The main condition for success educational work- compliance of the requirements with the understanding of the child, their reasoning and expediency, connection with the interests of the child and the needs of life. The following are necessary: maintaining a clear routine for children in a preschool institution; unity of teachers’ requirements for the child’s behavior in different life situations (in particular, during the child’s illness or during holidays); clear explanations by teachers of the motives of their own behavior and their requirements for the child, which promotes mutual respect between the child and the adult. It is necessary to demonstrate to children their progress towards the goal. The teacher must organize the activities of the older preschooler in such a way that he sees his progress towards the goal, and most importantly, realizes that this progress is the result of his own efforts. We develop the child's strong-willed qualities. Don’t do for your child what he can already handle on his own. The child will experience more joy if he himself achieves the goal. Overcoming obstacles on your own will become a source of active actions. Of course, a child’s capabilities are limited in many ways, and very often he cannot achieve results. If he can't cope on his own, he needs help. Perhaps at first not everything will work out correctly and will require your rework and more time. It is necessary to be patient, do not be nervous or rush, otherwise the child may lose interest in these activities. But your patience and the time spent will fully pay off: the child will develop correctly, and caring for him will be much easier. A well-thought-out regime and daily routine contributes to the formation of organization and strong-willed character traits of a child. It is very important to establish a unified approach to the child and coordinate the educational efforts of all family members. Disagreements between parents in methods of education develop duality in the child’s behavior and cunning. It is equally important to observe the principle of consistency, i.e. you should not allow a child to do something that was prohibited yesterday. We must gradually cultivate in a child the ability to master his desires, teach him to restrain himself, to overcome feelings of pain, resentment, and fear. All this strengthens and trains his will. The participation of children in household work, especially together with adults, has a very beneficial effect on the development of volitional actions. From the age of 4-5, a child can help with cooking, cleaning the room, etc. Participation in household work gives him the opportunity to feel like an equal member of the family team, and evokes an approving and even respectful attitude from adults.
Structure of the defect in intellectual disability (mental retardation)
Primary defect Inactivity (inactivity)
Secondary defect Violations mental functions
Structure of the defect in hearing impairment
Primary defect: Shutdown or gross insufficiency of auditory perception
Secondary defect Speech impairment
Tertiary defect Specifics of thinking Specifics of personality development Disadaptation
Structure of the defect in visual impairment
Primary defect: Shutdown or gross insufficiency of visual perception
Secondary defect Underdevelopment of psychomotor skills Impaired spatial orientation
Tertiary defect Specific personality development Disadaptation
Structure of the defect in cerebral palsy
Primary defect Movement disorders
Secondary defect Visual perception impairment Speech impairment Impairment of spatial gnosis and praxis
Tertiary defect Specific personality development Disadaptation
Structure of the defect in speech impairment
Primary defect Speech disorders
Secondary defect Mental retardation
Tertiary defect Specific personality development Disadaptation
Structure of the defect in early childhood autism
Primary defect Energy deficiency Violation of the instinctive-affective sphere Low sensory thresholds with a pronounced negative background of sensations
Secondary defect Autistic attitudes
Tertiary defect Specific personality development Disadaptation
Idea structural organization dysontogenesis belongs to L.S. Vygotsky. The structure of a defect consists of primary, secondary and subsequent orders of defects (violations). Let us present the definitions of the components of the defect structure given by V.M. Sorokin. Primary, or nuclear, disorders are slightly reversible changes in the operating parameters of a particular function caused by the direct influence of a pathogenic factor. This problem in special psychology currently requires detailed study; it is complex and ambiguous. There are two points of view on the structure of the defect: 1) the concept of “primary defect” is considered as a disorder underlying the clinical picture; 2) the concept of “primary defect” is considered as a primary violation of the operation and mental function. In the literature there are indications that the primary defects are organic lesions brain and analyzer systems. In fact, in our opinion, such violations do not represent psychological phenomena and cannot be included in the structure psychological analysis(M.V. Zhigoreva, A.M. Polyakov, E.S. Slepovich, V.M. Sorokin, I.A. Shapoval, etc.). Primary disorders directly result from the biological nature of the disease. However, we are talking about violations in the work of mental functions, and not their anatomical and physiological prerequisites. For example, the primary defect in hearing impairment is loss or insufficiency of auditory perception, and not the absence of hearing! Disturbed development is determined by the time of occurrence of the primary disorder and the severity of its severity. The presence of a primary disorder affects the entire course of further development of the child. Secondary, or systemic, disorders are reversible changes in the development of mental functions directly related to the primary one. For example, a secondary defect in hearing impairment is speech impairment. Such disorders have a greater degree of reversibility under the influence of corrective measures, but the correction of these disorders can be very lengthy and labor-intensive, which does not exclude the possibility of spontaneous recovery in some cases. Secondary disorders and preserved functions are the main object of psychodiagnostics and psychological and pedagogical correctional influence. The presence of a primary disorder does not automatically lead to the appearance of secondary deviations, the formation of which is associated with the action of various mechanisms. The same primary disorder will change the composition of secondary deviations with age. This explains the significant differences in the structure of the latter in the same nuclear disorder in humans of different ages. In addition, the differences largely depend on the individual characteristics of the person, in particular on his compensatory possibilities, and even more so from timeliness and adequacy correctional work, the effectiveness of which is higher the earlier it begins. As a result of the combination of primary and secondary violations a complex picture of disorders is formed, which, on the one hand, is individual for each child, and on the other, has many similar characteristics within each type of impaired development.
