Reforms of public administration in Russia in the 18th century. Abstract: State reforms of Peter I in the first quarter of the 18th century

Reforms of the state apparatus under Peter I

In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was initially supposed to replace the head of state during his absence (during military campaigns). But it became a permanent executive body. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, control trade, control the activities of the administration, control justice, control the activities of governors and covert political supervision over the activities of government agencies. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.”

In 1718-1721 the cumbersome and confusing system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions partially overlapped and did not have clear boundaries, the first 10 boards were established. Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management: the Board of Foreign Affairs - external relations, the military - the ground armed forces, the Admiralty - the fleet, the Chamber Board - tax collection, state finances, the State Office Board - state expenses, the Revision Board - control over execution of the budget, state revenues and expenses associated with the maintenance of the army and the state apparatus, the College of Justice - legal proceedings, the Patrimonial - noble land ownership, the College of Manufactories - industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg College, the Commerce College - trade. In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. The Little Russian Collegium (established in 1722) had a territorial character. It was created to govern Eastern Ukraine. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated.

The Synod, or Spiritual Collegium, established in 1721, became a kind of collegium. In 1721, the position of the patriarch-head of the Russian church was abolished, and the secret of confession was practically abolished. Monitoring the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special government official, the chief prosecutor. In 1722, clergy staffs were approved (one priest for 150 households). Everyone who found themselves outside the state was subject to a poll tax. A double tax was imposed on the Old Believers.

In order to strengthen local power, the country in 1708 was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of the subordinate territories. Each province occupied huge territory and for this reason it was in turn divided into provinces. There were 50 of them. The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties.

Decree on single inheritance of 1714. General characteristics. Meaning.

DECREE ON UNITY OF HERITANCE - a legislative act of Peter I dated March 23, 1714, which secured noble ownership of land. The full title is “On the procedure of inheritance in movable and immovable property.” According to the decree, the father could transfer real estate only to one of his sons or daughter (if there is no son); in the absence of children - to one of your relatives, but always of the same surname. The decree eliminated the legal difference between local and patrimonial land ownership. It was prohibited to sell and mortgage real estate. The testator could distribute movable property among the children at his own discretion. The main motive for issuing the decree was the desire of Peter I to prevent the fragmentation of noble estates. In 1730, the U. O. was abolished by Empress Anna Ivanovna at the request of the nobility.

According to the provisions of the Decree, there was a legal merger of local and patrimonial land ownership (in practice, this convergence occurred much earlier, however, it received legitimation only now). A new concept has emerged - real estate:

The decree prohibited the alienation of real estate, except in cases of “need.”

The decree gave the right to inherit undivided property to only one son (usually the eldest). However, this was not the principle of primogeniture.

Thus, Peter achieved the following results: landownership was protected from endless fragmentation, and the noble class was protected from impoverishment. The prohibition on alienation prevented a nobleman from losing at cards or in any other way “squandering” precious land. In addition, the right to inheritance, reserved only for one son, forced his brothers to regularly serve in the public service - “to seek ranks”

Legal status The nobility was significantly changed by the adoption of the Decree on Single Inheritance in 1714. This act had several consequences:

1) the legal merger of such forms of land ownership as patrimony and estate led to the emergence of a single concept of “real estate”. On its basis, the consolidation of the class took place. The emergence of this concept led to the development of more precise legal techniques, the development of the powers of the owner, and the stabilization of obligations;

2) the establishment of the institution of primogeniture (inheritance of real estate by only one eldest son), which is not characteristic of Russian law. Its goal was to preserve the landed property of the nobility from fragmentation. The implementation of the new principle led, however, to the emergence of significant groups of landless nobility, forced to take military or civilian service. This provision of the Decree caused the greatest discontent on the part of the nobles (it was abolished already in 1731);

3) having turned the estate into hereditary land ownership, the Decree at the same time found a new way to tie the nobility to public service - the restriction of inheritance forced its representatives to serve for a salary. A large bureaucratic apparatus and a professional officer corps began to form very quickly.

Provincial and city reforms of Peter I

Provincial reform.

The first attempt at radical administrative reforms was the provincial reform of 1708-1710. The country was divided into 8 provinces, far from equal in size (Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Moscow, Kazan, Kiev, Azov and Siberian). At the head of the province were governors-general and governors. Of course, the positions of governors were occupied by especially trusted persons from the king’s entourage. The head of the province, who concentrated the highest military and civil functions in his hands, had an assistant (vice-governor), chief commandant (in charge of military affairs), chief commissar and chief provision master (monetary and grain taxes) and the so-called landrichter ( was in charge of justice). The provinces were initially divided into “districts” with a “commandant” (i.e., in the old way, a governor) at their head. However, the provincial chancellery clearly could not cope with the many districts, and therefore a new, sort of intermediate administrative unit was soon introduced - the “province”, headed by the chief commandant. In 1713-1714 3 more provinces appeared (Nizhny Novgorod, Astrakhan and Riga). Since 1715, the provinces began to be divided into provinces (50 in number), and the provinces were no longer divided into counties, but into “shares” headed by the Landrat (each share had 5,536 households). Landrat was an elected official from the nobles, although he was entirely subordinate to the highest authority. After some time, instead of “shares,” “districts” appeared, each of which should now have 2 thousand households. Note that when checking the results of the first audit by the military administration, another district appeared - a regimental one, where this or that regiment was stationed, for the maintenance of which the taxes of this district were used.

In the province, the main administrative links were the commandant, the chamberlain, who organized the collection of taxes, and the rentmaster, who headed the local treasury (renter). In the districts, zemstvo commissars were primarily responsible for collecting taxes and performing police functions.

Urban reform.

The reform of the management of Russian cities was started by Peter the Great after returning from abroad. On January 30, 1699, a decree was issued “On the establishment of the Burmister Chamber for the administration of all types of violence between Guests and townspeople, for the management of government fees and city duties, and on the exclusion of Guests and townspeople from the department of Voivodes and Prikazov.” The Chamber of Burmisters was established in Moscow, and then similar ones appeared in other cities of Russia. The Moscow Burmister Chamber was subordinate to the zemstvo huts of all cities, which were supposed to replace the administrative huts and governors. 12 Zemstvo mayors sat in the zemstvo huts of cities and other large settlements, with the exception of Moscow, the townspeople of which were in charge of the Moscow mayors, and Siberia, in the cities of which, in accordance with the personal decree of October 29, 1699, power remained in the hands of the governor. The composition of the zemstvo huts, as well as the Moscow Burmister Chamber, was elected, so we can say that this reform was, to some extent, a reform of local self-government.

Moscow mayors played a dual role - on the one hand, they were in charge of the Moscow settlement, on the other, they were the central state body for managing cities. The burgomasters were elected annually and for an annual term from all Moscow corporations: guests, hundreds of living rooms and from all hundreds and settlements of “kind and truthful people, whom they among themselves and as much as a person wants”

The main responsibility of the Moscow mayors was to control the collection of taxes:

watch and take care of those merchants and trade and industrial people and Chernoslobod residents and visitors from cities, living in Moscow in settlements and among Belomestki, but do not pay taxes from trades and from trades: and they, the mayors, must impose taxes again , and from trades and from their trades there should be a duty according to the Trade Charter, so that the townspeople and all kinds of trade and industrial people and Chernoslobodtsy and visitors from the cities, living in the settlements of the Belomestians, would not be without taxes, and would not trade and trade duty-free, also and the Belomestians did not trade or trade duty-free; and to accept the above-mentioned Moscow and from other cities all salary income and fees to those selected mayors, and from those incomes to be spent according to His, the Great Sovereign's decree; and what monetary and other income they, the mayors, will retain for expenses during the year, and they, the mayors, will give those residual incomes to the Order of the Great Treasury.

Another duty of the mayors should be a hassle-free and impartial trial of the townspeople in all their court cases: “petitioners,” that is, private lawsuits, “revenes,” for which the state was held accountable, and “merchant,” so-called commercial processes.

Military and police reforms of Peter I

In the 17-18th century, there was a need to carry out military reform, because military operations showed the complete unsuitability of the army and the backwardness of the country. The main feature military reform carried out by Peter 1, was the creation of a regular army. The basis for the creation of a regular army were the “amusing regiments” of Peter I-Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky. Standing troops in the form of streltsy regiments and mercenaries existed even before Peter, but these troops were far from perfect. Peter 1 first introduced new principle army formations-recruitment: soldiers were completely separated from civilian life and devoted themselves entirely to military service. The provision of soldiers was completely borne by the state; the length of service was not determined. To recruit units, a commission was established - the General Court, as a result of which 27 infantry and two dragoon regiments were created, combined into three divisions. The army was clearly divided into regiments, battalions, and companies, and a rigid system of military hierarchy was created. A single military uniform, uniform types of weapons were adopted.

The reform of the Armed Forces yielded results, as evidenced by the victory in the Northern War.

Military training soldiers and officers were carried out according to the “Military Article”. Together with the regular army, military schools are being created to train officers. For example, in 1701 a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was created in Moscow, in 1712 a military engineering school was opened, and in 1715 the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg.

The army consisted of 3 types of troops:

Infantry - it was main family troops were divided into guards, line, and grenadier infantry. The main combat unit of the infantry was a regiment, consisting of 2 battalions. The regiment was commanded by a colonel, the battalion by a major, the company by a captain, and the plutong by a corporal.

Artillery, which was divided into field, regimental, fortress, and siege.

Cavalry. Regular cavalry, which from 1702 consisted of Danish people, and from 1705 was recruited. The cavalry consisted of dragoon grenadiers, dragoons - fusiliers, and dragoon garrison regiments.

To manage the army, special departments and positions were established:

A) generals

B) general - commissar - highest military judge

C) general-provisioner, who was in charge of supplies for the army, convoys, and the rear of the army.

Clear regulation of military life necessitated the codification of military branches of law. The “Military Article” arose - the code of war crimes, the procedural code of military justice, the Military and Naval regulations.

Policewoman.

Under Peter 1, Russia became truly a police state. It takes care of many and even unimportant needs of the life of its subjects, especially in the economic and domestic sphere, and regulates them.

Special decrees prescribed: what material to build houses from (1714), what materials to make shoes from (1715), what cut the dress should be (1713, 1714), etc.

In 1718, the post of Chief of Police General was established in St. Petersburg, and then in Moscow. Under them, police chief offices operated, which included military teams, clerical servants, officers, and convict chambers where detainees were kept. All police ranks and institutions of the city were subordinate to the police chiefs.

The population was widely involved in restoring order. The city was divided into 100, 50 and 10 households. They were headed by sotskys, fiftieths and tens, appointed from the local population. They guarded the streets at night and were responsible for fire and sanitary conditions.

Judicial reform of the 1st quarter of the 18th century. Education of the prosecutor's office and fiscal department

Under Peter 1 there were 2 political investigation bodies - the Preobrazhensky Order, in which. political cases coming from all over the country and the Secret Chancellery, which received cases arising in St. Petersburg and nearby cities, were considered. They acted independently of each other.

Under Peter 1, first attempts were made to separate the court from the administration. For this purpose, court and lower courts were created locally, subordinate to the College of Justice, they considered criminal and civil cases. In addition, a military court of two instances, a spiritual court, is being created. All these courts were under the control of administrative bodies and governors.

The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - the Hofgerichts or court of appeals in major cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called single court acted (cases were decided individually by the zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a governor. At the same time, under Peter, the previous principles of legal proceedings (16th century), partially preserved until the end of the 17th century, were finally eliminated, including personal inviolability without a court decision, the use of a jury (tselovalnikov), which could provide some semblance of a fair or independent trial (and which Russia later tried to revive, starting with the second half of the 19th century V.). Under Peter, these principles were eradicated in the most decisive manner: the previous legal proceedings were prohibited under pain of hard labor. And the new legal proceedings and laws introduced by Peter were no longer “holding court”, but “carrying out a search” - that is, extracting testimony under torture.

Establishment of the Institute of Fiscals and the Prosecutor's Office in the system of authorities

state power in the first quarter of the eighteenth century. was one of the phenomena

it was supposed to "involve fiscals in all sorts of matters." The fiscal system was created

as a special branch of Senate government. Head of Fiscals (Ober-Fiscal)

was part of the Senate, which was “in charge of the fiscal.” At the same time, fiscal taxes were

the king's confidants. The latter appointed the chief fiscal, who brought

the competence of fiscal officials: to inquire about everything that is “to the detriment of the state

interest maybe"; report "about malicious intent against his person

majesty or treason, about indignation or rebellion", "do they not creep into

state spies”, as well as the fight against bribery and embezzlement.

The main principle for determining their competence is “the recovery of all voiceless

affairs." The network of fiscal officials expanded and two principles gradually emerged

1714 it was prescribed in each province “to be 4 people including

provincial fiscals from any ranks are worthy, also from the merchants.”

The provincial fiscal monitored the city fiscals and once a year

“performed” control over them. In the spiritual department at the head of the organization

Fiscals were proto-inquisitors, in dioceses there were provincial fiscals, in

monasteries inquisitors. Over time, it was planned to introduce fiscalism into

all departments. After the establishment of the Justice Collegium, fiscal affairs were transferred to

its conduct and came under the control of the Senate, and with the establishment of the position

The prosecutor general's fiscals began to submit to him. In 1723 Was assigned

the fiscal general, who was the highest authority for fiscals. In accordance with

By decrees (1724 and 1725) he had the right to demand any business. His

The assistant was the chief fiscal officer. In practice, fiscal officials did not always fulfill their

tasks, because they themselves were part of the bureaucracy.

prosecutors in provinces and court courts. If the fiscals were partially

under the jurisdiction of the Senate, the prosecutor general and chief prosecutors were subject to trial

the emperor himself. Prosecutor's supervision even extended to the Senate. Decree

competence, which included: presence in the Senate (“look closely,

so that the Senate maintains its position.."), exercising control over fiscal funds,

"and if something bad happens, immediately report it to the Senate." The Prosecutor General had

right: to raise the issue before the Senate to develop a draft decision,

submitted to the emperor for approval, protest and

suspend the case, informing the emperor about it. Prosecutor of the Collegium

was present at meetings of the collegiums so that “in courts and executions it is correct and

acted disingenuously", supervised the work of the institution,

controlled finances, reviewed fiscal reports, checked protocols

and other board documentation.

Church reform under Peter 1

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received new title Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch".

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings. In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life. The most important decrees were January 24 and 31, 1701. In 1721, Peter approved Spiritual regulations, the compilation of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the tsar’s close Little Russian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Theological College was established, soon renamed Holy Synod, who was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of loyalty to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.

32. Social order Russia in the second half of the 18th - first 060. Social system of Russia in the second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th century

The social system of Russia in the second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th century

Class structure Russian society began to change. Along with the old classes of feudal lords and peasants, new classes arose - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Officially, the entire population was still divided into 4 classes: nobility, clergy, peasantry, and urban residents.

The nobility, as in the previous period, was the economically and politically dominant class. The nobles owned most of the land and exploited the peasants who lived on these lands. Alexander I restored the effect of the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility”, canceled by Paul I. The nobility had all the privileges, as before, and received new rights with the development of capitalist relations: to have factories and factories in cities, to conduct trade. The nobles received the right to own serfs without land, including the separation of families. The next privilege was their right to fill officer and bureaucratic positions in the army and the bureaucratic state apparatus, although this right was also a duty. A special institution - the Heraldry Office under the Senate, which kept books of records of the nobility and registered their family coats of arms, was supposed to control the noble service. The decree of 1782 established for the nobles ownership not only of the land, but also of its subsoil.

But despite all these privileges, the nobility was burdened with the obligation of lifelong service. The government of Anna Ivanovna in 1736 limited the service life to 25 years. And Peter 3, by the Decree on the liberties of the nobility in 1762, abolished compulsory service for nobles.

Peasantry. In 1842, the Decree on Obligated Peasants appeared. Landowners could provide peasants with land for use, for which the latter had to bear certain obligations under the contract.

Massive anti-feudal protests by the Baltic peasants forced the tsarist government to somewhat limit the arbitrariness of the barons here and issue a decree in 1804 according to which peasants were considered attached to the land, and not to the landowners, and they were forbidden to be sold without land.

Since 1816, some of the state peasants were transferred to the position of military settlers. The unrest of state peasants and significant arrears behind them forced the government in 1837 to carry out a reform of the management of state peasants. To manage them, the Ministry of State Property was established. The labor of the possession peasants was unproductive. In industry, the use of hired labor began to increase. In 1840, factory owners were allowed to free possession peasants. The position of the appanage peasants has not changed compared to the previous period.

Urban population. In the first half of the 19th century, the population of Russian cities grew significantly, the process of its stratification and intensification of the class struggle intensified. In 1832

Personal and hereditary honorary citizenship was established for the richest and most influential representatives of the emerging bourgeoisie and for some other categories of the population. The introduction of a new class group - honorary citizens - was also intended to protect the class of nobles from the penetration of representatives of the bourgeoisie. Honorary citizens did not pay a poll tax, did not bear conscription duties, and were exempt from corporal punishment. The merchant class began to be divided not into three, but into two guilds: the first included wholesale traders, the second - retailers. Merchants retained their privileges and could be awarded orders and ranks.

The guild group consisted of artisans assigned to the guilds. They were divided into masters and apprentices. The majority of the urban population were burghers, a significant part of whom worked in factories and factories for hire. The lowest group of the urban population were working people. This virtually powerless group of the urban population was placed under constant and vigilant police surveillance.

33. Legal status of the nobility Manifesto “On Freedom for the Nobility” 1762 and 1785

NOBILITY:

1. “Decree on unified inheritance”

a) the process of legal consolidation of the nobility

b) prepared the unity of the property base of this class and specially emphasized its service function, which became mandatory (the nobles were forced to serve).

2. Manifesto Peter III"On the Liberty of the Nobility"

a) confirmed the special position of the noble class in society

b) abolished the mandatory service that burdened the nobility.

c) it outlined new areas of application of the noble initiative (except for state and military service) - trade and industry.

3. “Charter granted to the nobility” (1785).

a) back in 1771, as a result of the work of the commission, a draft was prepared, which later became the basis for the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility.”

b) In the project, the entire population was divided into three classes, the first of which is called “noble”. The project developed the provisions of Catherine’s “Order” on the special status and purpose of the nobility.

c) the privileges of the nobility were defined quite broadly: first of all, the provisions of the Manifesto of 1762 “On the Liberty of the Nobility” were consolidated, on the freedom of nobles to serve, leave service, travel to other states, and renounce citizenship.

d) Political corporate rights of the nobility were established: the right to convene and participate in provincial congresses, the right to elect judges by nobles.

e) Noble dignity was defined as a special state of qualities that served as the basis for acquiring the title of nobility.

The grounds for deprivation of the title of nobility could only be criminal offenses in which the moral failure of the criminal and dishonesty were manifested. The list of these crimes was exhaustive.

The personal rights of nobles included: the right to noble dignity, the right to protection of honor, personality and life, exemption from corporal punishment, from compulsory public service, etc.

Property rights of the nobility: full and unlimited right of ownership to acquire, use and inherit any type of property. The exclusive right of the nobles to buy villages and own land and peasants was established; the nobles had the right to open industrial enterprises on their estates, wholesale the products of their lands, purchase houses in cities and conduct maritime trade.

The special judicial rights of the nobility included the following class privileges: the personal and property rights of the nobility could be limited or liquidated only by court decision: a nobleman could only be judged by his peers in the class court, the decisions of other courts did not matter to him.

Most of all, Peter I was interested in the idea of ​​a fleet and the possibility of trade relations with Europe. To put his ideas into practice, he equipped the Grand Embassy and visited a number of European countries, where he saw how Russia lagged behind in its development.

This event in the life of the young king marked the beginning of his transformative activities. The first reforms of Peter I were aimed at changing the external signs of Russian life: he ordered beards to be shaved and ordered to dress in European clothes, introduced music, tobacco, balls and other innovations into the life of Moscow society, which shocked it.

By decree of December 20, 1699, Peter I approved the calendar from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the New Year on January 1.

Foreign policy of Peter I

The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. On the outcome Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of military operations, the vigorous activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, strengthen the power and international situation Russia. The great tsar did a lot, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Reform of public administration of Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of provinces, numerous Orders ceased to operate and were replaced by Collegiums, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To govern the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed the Town Hall in November 1699, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). Members of the Town Hall and magistrates were elected by election.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.

Nobility.

1. Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
2. Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
3. Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.
4. Table of Ranks (1722): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

• state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
• palace ones that belonged personally to the king;
• possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

Urban class

Urban people were divided into “regular” and “irregular”. The regulars were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small traders and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or “mean people,” made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. In the provinces there were court appeal courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the position of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial highest administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of Peter I's financial reform boiled down to collecting money for maintaining the army and waging wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, and indirect taxes were introduced (bath taxes, horse taxes, beard taxes, etc.).

In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the main monetary unit became a penny. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted of a transition from household taxation to per capita taxation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education for children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated learning to read and write and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, and in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of the architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Medical reforms of Peter I

The main transformations were the opening of hospitals (1707 - the first Moscow military hospital) and schools attached to them, in which doctors and pharmacists were trained.

In 1700, pharmacies were established at all military hospitals. In 1701, Peter I issued a decree on the opening of eight private pharmacies in Moscow. Since 1704, state-owned pharmacies began to open in many cities of Russia.

For growing, studying, creating collections medicinal plants Apothecary gardens were created, where seeds of foreign flora were imported.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged domestic industrialists and traders. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated in Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, outlining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy were created.

Peter's reform activities were supported wide range nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, because the transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration. Among the opponents of Peter I's reforms was his son Alexei.

Results of the reforms of Peter I

1. A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
2. Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
3. The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
4. Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. A task of national importance has been set - the creation of a Russian medical education, and also marked the beginning of Russian surgery.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

1. The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
2. Lack of a reform system.
3. Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
4. Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

In the course of the history of our country, by this time significant shifts in its development had already occurred. The city separated from the village, a division occurred Agriculture and crafts, manufacturing-type industrial enterprises arose. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Russia borrowed technology and science, culture and education from Western Europe, but at the same time developed independently. Thus, the ground was already prepared for Peter's reforms.

PLAN

I. State reforms of the first half of the 18th century

a) decree on sole inheritance

b) table of ranks of 1722

c) reform of the state apparatus

d) local government reform

e) the status of the Russian monarch

II. Formation of a new system of law in the first half of the 18th century

a) military articles of 1716, types of crimes and punishments

b) judicial system and judicial process

c) civil, inheritance and family law

III. Codification of law in the second half of the 18th century

a) development of a new Code (1754)

IV. State reform of the second half of the 18th century

a) judicial reform of 1775

b) letter of grant to the nobility

V. State reforms of the first half of the 19th century

a) reforms of the state apparatus

b) police reforms

VI Codification of law in the first half of the 19th century

a) civil law

b) criminal law

I. State reforms of the first half of the 18th century

The transformations that took place in Russia covered almost all aspects of the country's life: economics, politics, science, everyday life, foreign policy, and the political system. They affected the situation of the working masses, church affairs, etc. In many ways, these transformations are associated with the activities of Peter I

a) Decree on unified inheritance

Peter's policies contributed to the sharp strengthening and consolidation of the nobility. It emerged from the top of the service class, and the bottom of the latter became state peasants. The nobility ousted the boyar aristocracy from power and strengthened its economic position. The Decree on Single Inheritance of 1714 legally equalized patrimonial and local property, while all real estate could now be received only by one of the heirs, and the rest - movable property. With these measures, Peter hoped, firstly, to prevent the fragmentation of the noble estates, and, secondly, to encourage the nobles to be more actively involved in military and civil service, entrepreneurship and study.

The decree on single inheritance could in the future lead to the emergence in Russia of a layer of nobility that did not depend on the favors of the state and the autocrat. IN Western Europe this helped limit royal power. However, nothing like this happened in Russia. Under Peter I, the dependence of the nobles on the state increased even more, and later this decree was canceled under pressure from the nobility.

b) table of ranks

After long and careful preparation, the “Table of Ranks” was published in 1722 - one of the most important documents of the era of strengthening the tsarist autocracy, defining the system of ranks and the procedure for promotion in the public service - military and civil. Having divided all civil and military positions into 14 ranks, she prioritized not the nobility of origin, but the personal merits of the nobles, and expanded access to public service for representatives of other classes. But this was not the final goal of the transformation. Using the principle of personal service and strictly specified conditions for promotion up the ladder of ranks, Peter turned the mass of servicemen into a military-bureaucratic corps, completely subordinate to him and dependent only on him. At the same time, Peter sought to connect as closely as possible the very concept of “nobleman” with mandatory permanent service, requiring knowledge and practical skills. Only that nobleman is worthy of honor who serves. Peter reinforced his suggestions with actions: all the nobles were assigned to various institutions and regiments, their children were sent to schools, sent to study abroad, the tsar forbade those who did not want to study to marry, and took away their estates from those who hid from service.

c) reforms of the state apparatus

The most important direction of Peter's reforms was the reform of the state. The old device was not able to cope with the increasingly complex management tasks. Therefore, new orders and offices began to be created. The reform, while meeting the most pressing needs of the autocracy, was at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic tendency. It was with the help of strengthening the bureaucratic element in government that Peter intended to resolve all state issues. The reform led to the concentration of all financial and administrative powers in the hands of several governors - representatives of the central government, but also to the creation at the local level of an extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials. The previous system of “order - district” has doubled: “order - province - province - district”.

A similar scheme was embedded in the idea of ​​organizing the Senate. Autocracy, which sharply strengthened in the second half of the 17th century. There was no need for institutions of representation and self-government. At the beginning of the 18th century, the activities of the Boyar Duma actually ceased, control of the central and local apparatus passed to the so-called “consultation of ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important representative departments.

The creation and functioning of the Senate was the next level of bureaucratization of senior management. The permanent composition of senators, elements of collegiality, personal oath, work program for a long period, strict hierarchical management - all this testified to the increasing importance of bureaucratic principles, without which Peter could not imagine either effective management or autocracy as a political regime of personal power.

Peter chose the Swedish government system as a model for creating the government reform he planned.

Peter made great efforts to establish the effective operation of the institutions he created and paid main attention to the development of numerous documents that were supposed to ensure the efficiency of the apparatus. He also created a model of the regulations of the central institution - the Admiralty Board.

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The state in Russia played a significant role throughout its history, and in the 18th century. the strengthening of statehood turned Russia into a great power. As a result of the reforms of the 18th century. a complex and ramified state apparatus was formed, based on a strict separation of the functions of management and the court, individual resolution of issues during their collegial preparation, and an institutionalized system of bodies monitoring the legality of its activities. In the 18th century the estate "sovereign" administrative and military service was replaced by civil service, the process of formation of the Russian bureaucracy as a special privileged circle of persons exercising public administration has been completed.

Relevance of the research topic.Central place in the history of Russia in the first half of the 18th century. occupied by the reforms of Peter I, Catherine I, Elizabeth Petrovna, and in the second half of the 18th century, of course, the reforms of Catherine II.

The reforms carried out by Peter I had great importance for the historical fate of Russia. The institutions of power he created lasted hundreds of years. In the history of Russia, there are few such or other institutions of state power, created ever before Peter I or after him, that would have existed for so long and would have had such a strong impact on all sides public life. The Peter the Great era is a unique historical period, marking an incredible historical example of successful reforms, unprecedented in scope and depth. Therefore, the study of this era has not lost its relevance, despite great amount research by domestic and foreign authors: the field of activity is too large.

Many historians call the Russian 18th century the century of women. Undoubtedly, the brightest and most talented of them on the throne is Catherine II. The reign of Catherine II, which lasted more than 30 years, left a deep mark on Russian history.

The reform processes of the second half of the 18th century associated with the reign of Catherine the Great are of great interest, since their study in historical and legal terms is not only of a scientific and educational nature, but also of a practical nature, allowing, in legal terms, to compare the features of the processes of transforming state administrative institutions into various periods of Russian history.

The modern Russian state is currently solving complex problems in the field of reforming the management system, and many of these problems have deep roots. historical roots. The Russian Empire of the mid-18th century and the Russian Federation of the early 21st century due to historical conditions forced to solve the same problems - strengthening central power, unifying administrative and judicial system over a vast territory. It is necessary, of course, to take into account that modern Russian society differs significantly from the society of the second half of the 18th century, and the nature of changes in the management system in the Russian Empire of the era of Peter I, Catherine II and the modern Russian Federation is different, but today, in an era of significant changes, it is necessary to take into account the national, both positive and negative, historical experience of transformations in the system of state and local government.

All of the above determines the relevance of the topic this study.

By degree of developmentthis topic is quite well studied, which indicates the constant attention of historians and lawyers to various aspects of the development of the management system in Russia XVIII century. Issues related to transformations in the management system of Russia in the 18th century were dealt with by the following: learned historians and legal scholars such as: Anisimov E.V., Bystrenko V.I., Migunova T.L., Omelchenko O.A., Pavlenko N.I. and other works of some of these authors are used in this course work.

ObjectThe study is the activities of Russian rulers of the 18th century in the field of state and local government of the Russian Empire.

Subjectresearch advocates reforms of central authorities government controlled and local government reforms during the reign of Peter I, Catherine I, Anna Ioannovna, Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine II, Paul I.

PurposeThis course work is to study the transformations in the management system of Russia in the 18th century.

During the study, the following questions were raised: tasks:

give general characteristics systems of higher central and local authorities management in Russia in the 18th century;

study the reforms of Peter I in public administration, namely: the reform of central government bodies and the reform of local government and self-government;

analyze the transformations in the management system in Russia in the 20-60s. XVIII centuries carried out by Catherine I, Anna Ioannovna, Elizaveta Petrovna;

study the reforms of the management system carried out by Catherine II, characterize the features of the provincial administrative-territorial

noah reform;

study the activities carried out by Paul I aimed at changing the management system of Catherine II.

The following were used when writing the course work: methods:the method of comparative government and jurisprudence - with its help, the work was able to give a comparative description of the reforms carried out in the first and second half of the 18th century; the historical-legal method - its application to objectively examine the entire management system of Russia in the 18th century, the system-structural method, its application in the study made it possible to reveal the essence of the very concept of reforming the management system. The materials that formed the basis of the study were studied and analyzed taking into account the chronology of events and the need to obtain historical and legal information from the scientific sources being studied.

Work structure. This course work consists of an introduction, which substantiates the relevance of the chosen topic, the main part, consisting of two chapters - the first gives the concept of the system of higher central and local governments that existed in Russia in the first half of the 18th century, studies the reforms carried out by Peter I, Anna Ioannovna, Elizaveta Petrovna; in the second chapter, the reforms of public administration of the second half of the 18th century are studied, namely, the reforms carried out by Catherine II and Paul I. At the end of the work, a conclusion is given containing conclusions on the research conducted.

reform public administration Ekaterina

Chapter 1. The system of higher central and local government bodies in Russia in the first half of the 18th century

Absolutism in Russia took shape in the second half of the 17th century, but its final approval and formalization dates back to the first quarter of the 18th century. The absolute monarchy exercised the dominance of the nobility in the presence of the emerging bourgeois class. Absolutism also enjoyed the support of merchants and manufacturers, who increased their wealth thanks to the benefits received and the encouragement of trade and industry.

The establishment of absolutism was accompanied by increased centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus and the creation of a regular army and navy.

There were two stages in the implementation of public administration reforms. The first of them covers 1699-1711. - from the creation of the Burmister Chamber, or Town Hall, and the first regional reform to the establishment of the Senate. Administrative transformations of this period were carried out hastily, without a clearly developed plan.

The second stage falls on quieter years, when the most difficult period The Northern War was left behind. The transformation at this stage was preceded by long and systematic preparation: the government structure of Western European states was studied; With the participation of foreign legal experts, regulations for new institutions were drawn up.

So, let's look at the reforms of state and local government in Russia during the reign of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna, and Elizaveta Petrovna.

1.1 Reforms of Peter I in the management system

During the reign of Peter the Great, reforms were carried out in all areas of the country's state life. Many of these transformations go back to the 17th century - the socio-economic transformations of that time served as the prerequisites for Peter's reforms, the task and content of which was the formation of a noble-bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.

Increasing class contradictions led to the need to strengthen and strengthen the autocratic apparatus in the center and locally, centralize management, and build a coherent and flexible system of administrative apparatus, strictly controlled by the highest authorities. It was also necessary to create a combat-ready regular military force to pursue a more aggressive foreign policy and to put pressure on the increasing frequency of popular movements. It was necessary to consolidate the dominant position of the nobility by legal acts and provide it with a central, leading place in state life. All this together led to the implementation of reforms in various spheres of state activity.

IN national historiography There were two opposing views on the era of Peter’s reforms, on their causes and results. Some historians believe that Peter I disrupted the natural course of the country's development, others believe that Russia was prepared for these transformations by all previous developments historical development. But everyone agrees on one thing: the era of Peter the Great was unprecedented in the quantity and quality of reforms carried out by the supreme power. The life of the country - political, economic, socio-cultural - has changed radically over several decades. According to Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov A. Utkina "Peter the Great made the greatest contribution to European history that time. During his reign, Russia, located on the eastern periphery of the Old World and transformed by him into an empire, began to play a leading role in Europe. Thanks to Peter's reforms, Russia made a powerful modernization breakthrough. This allowed our country to join the first rank of leading European countries."

So let’s look in more detail at the reforms of state and local government carried out by Peter I.

Central government reform

Of all Peter's reforms, the central place was occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links. This is understandable, since the old administrative apparatus, inherited by Peter, was unable to cope with the increasingly complex tasks of management. Therefore, new orders and offices began to be created. The reform, while meeting the most pressing needs of autocratic power, was at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic tendency. It was with the help of strengthening the bureaucratic element in government that Peter intended to resolve all state issues

At the beginning of the 18th century. all legislative, executive and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of the king. In 1711 Boyar Duma was replaced by the highest body of executive and judicial power - the Senate. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king on the basis of service suitability. In the exercise of executive power, the Senate issued resolutions - decrees that had the force of law. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was placed at the head of the Senate, who was entrusted with control over the activities of all government institutions; he was supposed to perform the functions of “the eye and ear of the sovereign.”

At the beginning of the 18th century. orders remained the bodies of central government, which became bureaucratized. The reform of the central authorities was carried out gradually, in two stages:

) 1699 - the beginning of the 18th century, when a number of orders were united under the leadership of one person while maintaining the apparatus of each order (44 orders were combined into 25 independent institutions). In connection with the needs of the Northern War, several new orders arose (Artillery, Provisions, Admiralty, Hand-to-hand Affairs, Preobrazhensky, etc.).

) Reform of 1718-1720, which abolished most orders and introduced 12 colleges. The transformation began with Peter's Decree of December 11, 1717 "On the election of advisers and assessors." The orders were transformed because they slowed down the implementation of the state's tasks in the context of the beginning of the transition from feudalism to capitalism. The boards were created on the model of those that existed in Germany, Denmark, France, and Sweden. The collegial method of resolving cases was more progressive than the orderly one; in them the matter was more clearly organized, issues were resolved much faster.

In a number of boards A system of sectoral local governments has emerged.The apparatus of local bodies was located at the Berg Collegium and the Manufactory Collegium (which had commissariats); Justice Collegium (court courts); Chamber Collegium (Cameras and Zemstvo Commissars); Military Collegium (governors); State office (rentmasters).

In contrast to orders, collegiums (with rare exceptions) were built on a functional principle and were endowed with competence in accordance with the functions assigned to them. Each board had its own circle of departments. Other boards were prohibited from interfering in matters not subject to their jurisdiction. Governors, vice-governors, governors, and chancelleries were subordinate to the collegiums. The collegiums sent decrees to lower institutions, and entered the Senate by “reports.” The collegiums were given the right to report to the tsar about what they “saw as a state benefit.” The board had a fiscal officer and later a prosecutor who controlled their activities.

The number of boards was not constant. In 1722, for example, the Revision Board was liquidated, but later restored. To govern Ukraine, the Little Russian Collegium was created in 1722, and somewhat later - the Collegium of Economy (1726), the Collegium of Justice, Livonian, Estonian and Finnish Affairs. The collegiums were led (they were their presidents) by the closest associates of Peter I: A.D. Menshikov, G.I. Golovkin, F.M. Apraksin et al.

Local government and self-government reform

The years of the reign of Peter I are distinguished by his constant attempts to bring to life the initiative of the population. However, the goal of such transformations has always been the enslavement of all its layers various types taxes (there were up to 60 of them). All social aspirations of the emperor were subordinated to the fiscal needs of the state.

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation of provinces. This reform completely changed the local government system. The Decree “On the Establishment of Governorates and the Decoration of Their Cities” dated December 18, 1708 was dedicated to her. According to this decree, the entire territory of Russia was divided into 8 provinces (headed by governors): Moscow, Ingermanland - later St. Petersburg, Kiev , Smolensk, Arkhangelgorod - later Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian. In 1711 there were 9 provinces, and in 1714 - 11 (Astrakhan, Nizhny Novgorod, Riga). This was Peter's first administrative reform, and it was of a fiscal nature. In addition, the provincial reform strengthened the power of local landowners.

Since 1719, Peter began the second administrative reform, because. the first, carried out from 1708, was largely completed by 1719. In accordance with the second local government reform, 11 provinces were divided into 45 provinces, at the head of which governors were placed. Provinces were divided into districts , where the chamber board appointed such leaders as zemstvo commissars. In 1724, a new tax began to be collected from the population - the poll tax. To collect the poll tax, the institution of new zemstvo commissars elected for 1 year by the local noble society was established. However, the institution of elected commissars did not last long; it was faced with pronounced absenteeism of the local nobles (many of their congresses could not take place due to the absence of nobles).

The zemstvo commissar, who transferred the poll tax to the colonel, became completely dependent on the latter. The dominance of the civil bureaucracy in the province (governor, voivode, zemstvo commissar) was further complicated by the dominance of the military regimental authorities. Under the double pressure of both, the embryos of self-government quickly died out.

The transformations of public administration carried out by Peter I had progressive significance for Russia. The institutions of state power he created lasted for more than two centuries. The Senate, for example, operated from 1711 to December 1917, i.e. 206 years old. Many other reforms of Peter the Great had an equally long fate: the institutions of state power he created had a noticeable impact on all aspects of public life.

1.2 Transformations in the management system in Russia in the 20-60s. 18th century

The transformations of Peter I became the axis around which the wheel of Russian history revolved throughout the 18th century. The attitude towards them will be one of the main issues for the rulers of Russia in the post-Petrine era. But the Great Peter was replaced by rather faceless heirs, and the fate of Peter’s reforms turned out to be dramatic. V.O. called the era of palace coups. Klyuchevsky 37-year period (1725-1762) in the history of Russia.

Change of rulers to Russian throne did not mean any serious changes or shocks for the country. During this period, there were no major and significant reforms in the country. We can only talk about the reorganization of central government bodies and their adaptation to the needs of a specific ruler and his entourage.

The core of domestic policy in the era of palace coups were measures that expanded and strengthened the privileges of the nobility, often through revisions of Peter’s reforms. The weakening of Russia, the bureaucratization of the state apparatus, the decrease in the combat effectiveness of the army and navy, and favoritism turned out to be characteristic features of this time.

So, let's look at the main transformations in the system of higher central and local government bodies in Russia in the 20-60s of the 18th century.

After the death of Peter I, the Russian throne was occupied by Catherine I. The power of Catherine I was established in the form absolute monarchy. Under Catherine I and further, there was an order in which all state institutions - supreme, central and local, legislative, executive and judicial - had their only source in the person of the emperor. All state power was concentrated in the hands of one person, although outwardly it looked as if some higher authorities acted independently or made decisions collectively in the presence of the emperor. In reality, such decisions were only advisory in nature. The formation of government bodies was influenced by the already strengthened signs of absolutism - the presence of a regular army, bureaucracy, an organized financial system, and developing commodity-money relations. The highest authorities, acting on behalf of the empresses, were the support of absolutism.

Under Catherine I, on February 8, 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created, which became the main government body under the Empress. Becoming higher institution in the state, the Supreme Privy Council was in charge of all important internal and external affairs. His functions included the appointment of senior officials, financial management, and reporting to the audit board. Three most important boards were subordinate to the council - military, admiralty and foreign. The central body - the Secret Chancellery, created under Peter I, was liquidated in 1726, and control, search and supervisory functions were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council.

The Senate was subordinated to the Supreme Privy Council and lost the title of government and began to be called high. In fact, the Supreme Privy Council, having broad powers and having a high position in the state, replaced the empress. The decree of August 4, 1726 allowed all laws to be signed either by the Supreme Privy Council or by the Empress.

After the death of Catherine I, he ascended the throne according to her will Peter II.Under Peter II, all power was also concentrated in the hands of the Supreme Privy Council. After the death of Peter II. The question of the successor to the throne was decided by the Supreme Privy Council, which rejected all candidates and chose the Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna.

On March 4, 1730, the Supreme Privy Council was abolished. There have been changes in the highest authorities. The Senate continued to act, but its rights were not fully restored. Anna did not show the ability or desire to rule the country. All management work was undertaken by experienced administrators - members of the newly created Cabinet of Ministers in the fall of 1731. At first, the Cabinet of Ministers had only a managerial function, but since November 1735 this government body received broad powers and legislative rights.

After a short reign Ivan VIOn November 25, 1741 she ascended the Russian throne Elizaveta Petrovna.

By decree of December 12, 1741, Elizabeth restored “Petrine’s brainchild” - the Senate as the highest state body and eliminated the Cabinet of Ministers that stood above it, which had special powers. Instead, it was ordered “to have a Cabinet at Our Court in such strength as it was under Peter the Great.” Thus, Peter's personal imperial office - the Cabinet - was restored. Some of the affairs of the former Cabinet of Ministers began to be decided by the Senate, and the other part came under the personal jurisdiction of the Empress. Things went to her personal office - Her Majesty's Office. Elizabeth received reports from various departments, the Senate, and reports from the Prosecutor General for consideration. Decrees were issued only with the personal signature of the empress.

The ongoing reform of the highest government bodies in the 40s - 60s. XVIII century increased the role of the monarch in the system of absolutism. The Empress resolved not only important state issues, but also minor ones. For acceptance government decisions Elizabeth needed advice from senior officials who constituted the elite in Russian governance. Therefore, she restored Peter’s “establishment” - emergency meetings of senior dignitaries to discuss the most complex problems, especially in the field of foreign policy. Under Elizabeth, such meetings were officially called “conferences”, and their participants were called “conference ministers”.

In general, under the successors of Peter I, the Russian state increasingly took shape as a police state. For example, under Elizabeth there was a Secret Chancellery, which in the 40-60s. conducted an investigation into rumors that defamed the queen. The police style regulated all activities of the state apparatus. Strict obedience was required from officials of all government bodies without reasoning.

Palace coups and police regulation of the state system affected changes in the structure and functions of both higher and central government institutions. At the top of the pyramid of authorities and administration of the Russian Empire stood the emperor (empress). He was followed by the highest government institutions - the Supreme Privy Council, the Cabinet of Ministers, the Conference at the Highest Court, operating in different time. As for the Senate, headed by the Prosecutor General, its position changed several times. This authority was supposed to be subordinate only to the emperor, but in certain periods it depended on the highest government institutions.

Large group central government institutions of the second quarter of the 18th century. consisted of boards that managed individual (special) economic and social issues. The structure of the boards included departments, expeditions, and offices and offices were gradually added. Formed by the middle of the 18th century. the collegial management system was variegated. Its central government institutions (colleges, orders, offices) differed in structure and powers. The college system was in a state of crisis. But at the same time central authorities management, new principles of their organization and action emerged.

The system of local institutions in the 20-60s of the 18th century also underwent significant changes. This was explained by the need to strengthen the noble state in the 20-30s, when an acute financial crisis broke out and the discontent of the masses intensified. The restructuring of local government bodies was carried out in the interests of landowners. In 1727, Peter's expensive system of local institutions was actually eliminated (or sharply reduced).

At the end of the 20s. A regional counter-reform was carried out, eliminating a number of administrative units. The reduction of the administrative apparatus in the provinces was quite severe, following the example of the central boards, where the staff was reduced to a minimum of 6 people - the president, his deputy, two advisers and their two assistants (assessors). And half of these officials were supposed to be “at work,” while the other half were on vacation without pay.

The main local unit was the province, headed by the governor, whose powers increased sharply. He even had the right to approve death sentences. There was no separation of administrative power from judicial power. In cities and counties, power belonged to the governors.

The scheme of local government institutions looked like this: the governor with the provincial office, enshrined in instructions dated September 12, 1728, then there was the governor in the province and his office, below that there was the governor in the district, also with a small office.

The restructuring of the local government system established strict sequence submission. The district voivode was subordinate only directly to the provincial voivode, and the latter was subordinate to the governor. A strict hierarchy was established in the subordination of local government agencies. At this time, Russia was divided into 14 provinces, 47 provinces and more than 250 districts.

The competence of governors and voivodes was limited to practical tasks. Their duties included the execution of laws and orders of the supreme power, the Senate and collegiums, maintaining order in their territory, combating robbery, running prisons, etc.

The magistrates, who began to operate again in 1743, were subordinate to governors and voivodes and were also included in the general system of centralization of power. In the 60s governors changed after 5 years. Governors were appointed for an indefinite period. A hierarchy of management levels, institutions and officials employed in them took shape.

The centralization of the public administration system from bottom to top, the formation of a service bureaucracy mainly from among the nobles, supported and strengthened autocratic power. The bureaucracy became an elite layer, emerging both from the old aristocratic part of the ruling class and from the new nobles, who were advanced by their personal qualities.

In the middle of the 18th century. Elizabeth Petrovna's government actively influenced the process of formation of the bureaucracy. Measures were taken to secure the employment of clerical servants and their children. The number of hereditary nobles among officials decreased. To correct the situation in 1750-1754. The appointment of non-noble origins as secretaries was suspended, and control over the training of cadets - candidates for secretarial positions at various levels - was tightened.

Chapter 2. Public administration reforms in the second half of the 18th century

A series of palace coups 1725-1762. weakened Russian statehood and all levels of government. In the second half of the 18th century, the management system was still built on the foundation of the main pillars: autocracy, serfdom, patrimonial ownership, class, which determined its social anti-people orientation, centralization and bureaucratization of all levels management system. The aggressive foreign policy affected the changes in the functions and administrative structure of the management system, which tightened the tax pressure, exploitation of the peasantry and other tax-paying segments of the population.

The quality of public administration was affected by the aggravation of social tension, the sharp separation of classes, the growth of contradictions between the nobility and the peasantry, unrest and armed uprisings of the peasants. Favoritism, a unique institution of power that is a global and Russian phenomenon, also affected management.

Administrative reforms of the second half of the 18th century. were carried out in two stages: in the 60s and 70-90s, the demarcation mark between which was the reaction of Catherine II to the social upheavals of the empire in the early 70s.

Reorganization of senior and central management

The palace coup that took place on June 28, 1762, during which Catherine overthrew her husband Peter III from the throne and became Empress Catherine II, served as the beginning of a new stage in the development of the Russian Empire. This empress, who reigned from 1762 to 1796, deservedly entered Russian history as Catherine the Great. Before her, only Peter I was called Great. After her, no one else on the Russian throne received such an honor.

Catherine II was deeply and keenly interested in state affairs, and moreover, she considered them her main calling. She saw her task as continuing the grandiose transformations begun by Peter the Great, and, striving to be like him in both big and small ways, she spared no effort to bring Russia into the ranks of not only the most powerful, but also the most advanced countries in the world.

Catherine II did a lot to improve internal organization empires. Moreover, its transformations did not take place as violently, cruelly and painfully as under Peter I. It was a serious and deep work, in which the customs, habits, and age-old way of life of the Russian people were not destroyed, but were taken into account, used and adapted to Russian reality. According to scientists, “the personal influence of Catherine II on state and legal transformations in the country was especially historically significant, comparable in Russian history only to the state role of Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century.”

The reforms of Catherine II affected the entire system of public administration and they began from its upper levels, whose role after Peter I either weakened or rose due to repeated changes in their status and functions.

The reforms were based on the following goals:

to elevate the nobility, to make the government strong enough to realize its interests in domestic and foreign policy;

strengthen your personal power, obtained illegitimately, illegally, as a result of the assassination of the emperor; subjugate the entire system of government.

Catherine, who carried out a coup on June 28, 1762 with the help of the noble guards, sought to rely on the army to govern the state. Immediately after the coup, she subjugated, through personally devoted commanders, the army infantry of the St. Petersburg and Vyborg garrisons and cavalry.

The reorganization of the Senate became noticeable. In the manifesto of December 15, 1763 “On the establishment of departments in the Senate, Justice, Patrimonial and Revision Boards, on the division of their affairs,” the state of the Senate administration was recognized as not corresponding to the needs of public administration. However, the Senate was given the status of the highest executive body of government and court. The current functions of a number of abolished boards and offices were transferred to him. With the narrowed role of the Senate, the role of the Attorney General has been especially elevated to a high-ranking official and confidant.

The Senate lost its broad powers, was deprived of legislative rights, and from the highest governing body it was turned into an auxiliary administrative and judicial appellate body at the level of central rather than supreme government. The role of the departments gradually weakened, becoming merely the highest judicial authorities in connection with the creation of sectoral expeditions of the Senate.

The Senate Secret Expedition played a special role (office), which had the status of an independent state institution. The temporary highest state body was the Statutory Commission, created to draw up a new “Code” (1767 - 1768). The commission was created as a class-representative institution. Deputies delivered 1,465 “orders” to the Commission. The commission was dissolved due to the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish war, but its materials facilitated the development of further reforms.

The strengthening of Catherine’s absolutism in governance was also subject to the activities of the Council at the Highest Court, established in 1768 in connection with the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish War. The role of the new personal office in the management sphere has increased, created in 1763 for the administration of “Her Imperial Majesty’s own affairs.” Through secretaries of state, whose number was growing, Catherine conducted the bulk of government affairs. This structure emerged from the imperial cabinet, embodied and determined the trend of further absolutization of public administration, which at the end of the 18th century. acquired a despotic form through the formation of His Imperial Majesty’s own chancellery, which became the highest body of government. At the same time, the Empress's Cabinet lost its functions as a government body.

The status of the Main Palace Chancellery has also developed , through which the palace peasants, lands, households, and court staff were managed. The court, gofintendant, stable and other similar offices were subordinate to her.

Catherine II’s line of strengthening her personal role not only in the highest, but also in the central administration was embodied in a change in the collegiate system, where the role of the collegial principle was downgraded and the principles of unity of command were introduced. Catherine II weakened the central administration, transferred the affairs of most collegiums to local ones provincial institutions. Many colleges were abolished. The role of central management was reduced to general executive direction and supervision.

Provincial reform of Catherine II

Catherine II's line of strengthening absolutism in public administration, its centralization and policeization, and subordination to the empress personally was embodied consistently in the provincial reform, which was carried out in two stages.

On April 1764, the decree “Instructions for Governors” improved the institution of governorship, its state status and functions. The governor was declared the representative of the imperial person, the head, owner and guardian of the province entrusted to him, the executor of the imperial will and laws. The governor received enormous power, customs, magistrates, various commissions, police, Yamsky boards were subordinate to him - all “civil places”, “zemstvo governments” that had previously functioned outside the governor’s office and in the sphere of central subordination. On November 7, 1775, a Decree was issued “ Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire."

Having thus transformed local government, Catherine intended to ensure better and more accurate execution of royal laws, internal security and order in the empire. The new administrative structure was also subject to this:

a) disaggregation and more than doubling of provinces - from 23 to 51;

b) the elimination of 66 provinces as an unnecessary intermediate link between the province and the district;

c) a multiple increase in the number of counties;

d) the introduction of 19 governorships of two or three or more provinces each. The new administrative-territorial division is designed to increase the efficiency of tax, police, judicial, and all punitive policies.

Instead of the previous provincial chancellery, a provincial government was established, the presence of which consisted of the sovereign ruler and two advisers. Provincial institutions were built on a functional basis and performed strictly defined administrative, financial, judicial and other functions: the chambers of house-building affairs and the management of the Treasury revenues of the imperial highness, criminal and civil courts.

In each province, a unique body was established - an order of public charity for the management public schools, hospitals, hospitals, almshouses, orphanages, restraining houses and workhouses.

The treasury chamber was endowed with broad functions and high status, the head of which, the vice-governor, was appointed by the Senate on behalf of the monarch. Its main task was to ensure the regular flow of income. The State College administered the collected government revenues.

County administration , subordinate to the provincial government, was represented by the lower zemstvo court, which became the main executive body and had full power in the district. He ensured compliance with the laws of the empire, execution of orders provincial government, court decisions, had other functions in managing the county. Its head, the chairman of the zemstvo court, represented by the zemstvo captain-police officer, was endowed with great powers and could take any measures to ensure law and order.

The institution of imperial viceroyship introduced by Catherine II became the link between higher and local government. in the capital provinces, in large district-regions, covering several provinces. Catherine II appointed 19 governors-general from among the most trusted elite aristocrats to the vicegerency, endowing them with extraordinary, unlimited powers, extraordinary functions, and personal responsibility to the crown.

The governor-general had his own viceroyal government as an executive body, several advisers, exercised a supra-governor position, carried out royal commands through the governors, acted as the head of the royal administration through the provincial administrative apparatus, courts, class bodies, police, troops located on the territory of the viceroyalty, carried out general supervision of officials could put pressure on the court, stop the execution of court sentences without interfering in legal proceedings.

The “Establishment for the Administration of the Provinces,” adopted in 1775, legitimized a major regional reform, which strengthened the local state principle in the spirit of absolutism, created an extensive administrative system of management, divided administrative, financial, economic, judicial, and police functions into individual provincial institutions, and reflected trends the combination of state and public principles in local government, its bureaucratization and centralization, and the vesting of the nobility with power in the regions. The provincial reform embodied autocratic traditionalism imperial administration in the second half of the 18th century, a course towards strengthening the local royal administration.

Counter-restructuring of the management system of Catherine II by Paul I

Paul I, who ascended the throne in 1796, tried to “correct” everything that, in his opinion, had been thrown into disorder by his mother, acting in the same vein of absolutist governance. He sought to strengthen and elevate the principle of autocracy, individual power according to Prussian state models.

Paul I strengthened autocratic power, he weakened the importance of the Senate, but strengthened the supervision of the Senate Prosecutor General over central government bodies and local prosecutors over governors and other officials. Established military governorates in the capital and Moscow. He abolished a number of governorships where governors-general exercised independence.

In line with the centralization of management, he recreated Manufaktur-, Kamer, Berg - and some other boards, put directors at their head, and endowed them with the right of personal reporting to the tsar, and independence of action from the members of the boards. The Postal Department was separated from the Senate into an independent central institution. The Department of Water Communications also became independent. A central department was created to manage the lands and peasants of the royal family.

Paul I compiled a note “On the structure of various parts of public administration,” which contained a plan for the establishment of ministries instead of collegiums.

Paul I abandoned his mother’s course with her reliance on the “enlightened” nobility, suspended many articles of the charter of the nobility, limited noble privileges, rights and benefits, decided to restore the “brilliance of the autocracy”, reduce the influence of the nobles on the tsarist government, obliged them to serve again, restored for them Physical punishment, introduced fees from nobles for the maintenance of the provincial administration, abolished provincial and limited district noble meetings, expanded the scope of the governor’s intervention in noble elections, and reduced the number of noble voters by five times.

Paul I also changed provincial government - he reduced the number of provinces and, accordingly, their institutions, closed the orders of public charity, and returned the previous structures and forms of government to the outskirts. He radically changed city government in the German style, combining the weak class government in cities with the police authorities. He abolished the duma and deanery boards in the provincial cities, established ratgauzes headed by presidents appointed by the emperor, which were controlled by the governors and the Senate, and included officials both appointed by the Senate and elected by the townspeople and approved by the emperor. Magistrates and town halls were subordinate to the Rathaus.

In 1799, ordinances headed by a police chief, mayor or commandant were created in provincial and district towns. The new military-police bodies were also in charge of military courts and prisons.

Paul I showed a clear desire to rely on the bureaucracy; he increased the number of officials in the central and local apparatus, and carried out a number of measures to strengthen official discipline. Paul I centralized management to the extreme, strengthened its despotic form, personally intervened in all the details of management through his own office, the Senate, the Synod, and the collegium, strengthened the unity of command, the role of the bureaucracy, deepening the crisis state of the system of absolutist rule, which could not save Russia from a new aggravation of contradictions , anti-serfdom protests at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries, the bloody change of supreme power in the spring of 1801.

Conclusion

Thus, having considered the management system of Russia in the 18th century, we can make the following conclusions:

The transformations that took place in Russia in the 18th century covered almost all aspects of the country's life: economics, politics, science, everyday life, foreign policy, and the political system. Particular attention was paid to the management system, both state and local. At the same time, public administration, both in the first and second half of the 18th century. was aimed at strengthening the power of the absolute monarch and at increasing centralization and bureaucratization.

The great reformer of the first half of the 18th century was Peter I. The transformations of Peter I became the axis around which the wheel of Russian history revolved throughout the 18th century. The merit of Peter I was that he correctly understood and realized the complexity of the tasks that faced the country, and purposefully began to implement them.

Among the transformations of Peter I, the central place was occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links, since the old administrative apparatus inherited by Peter was unable to cope with the increasingly complex tasks of management. Peter I created new governing bodies. The reforms of Peter I, while meeting the most pressing needs of autocratic power, were at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic tendency. His reforms, while meeting the most pressing needs of autocratic power, were at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic tendency.

The Great Peter was replaced by rather faceless heirs, and the fate of Peter's reforms turned out to be dramatic. The change of rulers on the Russian throne did not mean any serious changes or upheavals for the country. During this period, there were no major and significant reforms in the country. We can only talk about the reorganization of central government bodies and their adaptation to the needs of a specific ruler and his entourage.

The transformations of Catherine II were not as violent, cruel and painful as under Peter I. It was a serious and deep work, in which the customs, habits, and centuries-old way of life of the Russian people were not destroyed, but were taken into account, used and adapted to Russian reality. Catherine II's line of strengthening absolutism in public administration, its centralization and policeization, and subordination to the empress personally was consistently embodied in the provincial reform.

The reforms of Paul I were aimed at creating a harmonious centralized management system focused on the king. He restored some colleges, he decisively reformed the entire system of local government, created on the basis of the Establishment of 1775, Paul I changed the administrative-territorial division of the country, the principles of governing the outlying provinces.

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REFORM OF THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY

Reforms were carried out throughout the reign of Peter I. It often happened that new considerations and regulations abolished what had recently been created and had not stood the test of time. There was no special plan for carrying out reforms.

Construction of factories. The greatest changes have occurred in the industrial sector. By the end of the 17th century. There were about 30 manufactories in the country. During the years of Peter's rule, there were more than 100 of them. Along with Moscow and the adjacent provinces of the Non-Black Earth Center, two new industrial regions were formed: the Urals and St. Petersburg, the importance of which was rapidly growing.

Metallurgy developed at a particularly rapid pace. By the middle of the 18th century. Russia smelted one and a half times more pig iron than England, and took a leading place in metal production. Along with those that existed back in the 17th century. factories in the area of ​​Tula, Kashira and Kaluga arose metallurgical manufactories in Karelia (Petrozavodsk, etc.), close to the theater of military operations, and then in the Urals. By the middle of the 18th century. 61 out of 75 plants operated in the Urals. The world's largest metallurgical plants were Nevyansky, Kamensky (Kamensk-Uralsky), Nizhne-Tagilsky, and Yekaterinburg. Metal production made it possible to create, in addition to Tula, arms factories in Sestroretsk (near St. Petersburg) and in the Olonets region (Karelia). In 1719, the Berg Privilege (Peter's decree) was published. It allowed all residents of Russia to search for minerals and, with the permission of the Berg College, to found factories, i.e. "proclaimed mountain freedom."

In the center of the country, the textile industry developed most, which worked mainly for the army. The most significant enterprises were the Moscow Cloth Yard, the Bolshaya Yaroslavl Manufactory, and cloth factories in Voronezh, Kazan, and Ukraine.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. New branches of production arose: shipbuilding (in St. Petersburg, Voronezh, Arkhangelsk), silk spinning, glass and earthenware, paper production (in St. Petersburg, Moscow). The craft received further development. In 1722, a decree was issued on the creation of craft workshops in Russian cities.

Russian industry developed under the rule of serfdom. Since there were almost no free labor in the country, the enterprises organized by Peter I used hired foreign craftsmen, soldiers, as well as runaway peasants and townspeople, tramps, convicts, etc. In the first years of the creation of large-scale industry in Russia, it was used hired labor. However, its reserves were small. Factory owners began to intensively extend serfdom to manufactories.

In 1721, a decree was issued allowing non-noble factory owners to buy and relocate peasants to factories. Such workers were called possession peasants. By decree of 1736, workers who found themselves in factories owned by people of non-noble origin were assigned to them forever; they could only be sold together with the factory. This category of the population was called “forever given to the factories.” Later they merged with the possession peasants.

In addition, from the very beginning of large-scale manufacturing construction, with a shortage of workers, especially in the Urals and Karelia, peasants began to be assigned to the factories, who paid their taxes to the state not in money, but worked in the factories at established rates.

Thus, a feature of the development of Russian manufacturing, especially in such industries as metallurgy, the linen and cloth industry, came closer to the serf fiefdom. Freelance labor was used sporadically. The largest Russian industrialists, the Stroganovs, Demidovs, Osokins, Myasnikovs and others, sought to receive titles of nobility and the class privileges corresponding to them. This process was called the “nobility” of the nascent Russian bourgeoisie. The peasants and the land under the plant were worth three to four times more than the plant itself.

Agriculture. Changes in the field of agriculture were minor. Agricultural development of new lands continued in the south of the country, in the Volga region and Siberia. The cultivation of industrial crops (flax, hemp, tobacco, grapes, etc.) expanded. More productive breeds of livestock were bred (Merino sheep, etc.). Horse breeding provided horses for the Russian cavalry.

The most common way for the nobles to increase production was to increase serfdom. The law did not determine the amount of peasant duties; it was established by the landowner himself.

Trade. Development of industrial and craft production, Russia's access to the Baltic Sea contributed to the growth of foreign and domestic trade. Communication routes have improved. Canals were built to connect the Volga with the Neva (Vyshevolotsky and Ladoga). The construction of canals between Moscow and the Volga, as well as between the Don and the Volga, was conceived and even started, but was stopped due to lack of funds.

The exchange of goods between individual parts of the country increased. Fairs continued to play a major role (Makaryevskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitskaya, etc.), i.e. The process of forming an all-Russian market continued in the country. Foreign trade was further developed, the main center of which was St. Petersburg, where several hundred merchant ships arrived a year.

Along with silver coins, copper change money began to be minted. Peter's government provided constant support to Russian merchants and industrialists (policy of protectionism). The merchants were united into the first and second guilds. In order to encourage the merchants, the first trade tariff was introduced in 1724, encouraging the export of Russian goods abroad. By 1726, the import of goods was half as much as the export. Peter understood that trade strengthens the power of the state.

Social politics. In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords into a single class. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles (landowners or gentry in the Polish manner). The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The remaining nobles had to perform compulsory service in the army, navy or government bodies.

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civilian and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to achieve each subsequent rank only by completing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). Thus, the ruling stratum was strengthened by including the most talented representatives of other classes into its composition.

The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and clergy, was obliged to pay taxes to the state. In 1718-1724. A capitation census of the entire male population was conducted. Instead of the peasant household, the unit of taxation became the “male soul.” The entire male population, from infants to decrepit old people, was included in the “revision lists” and was obliged to pay an annual cash tax - the poll tax. The census results allow us to say that the population of Russia then numbered approximately 15 million people. Serfs and all “free walking people” were required to pay tax along with the serfs of which they became a part.

Peasants who belonged to landowners (landowners or privately owned) and monasteries (monastic) paid 74 kopecks a year to the treasury. The peasants who lived on communal lands that were under the jurisdiction of the state (chernososhnye - lived on the lands of Pomerania, the Volga region, Siberia; yasashnye - the non-Russian population, paid rent in furs; odnodvortsy - small service people of the southern outskirts of the country), paid a tax of 40 kopecks. more than proprietary ones, i.e. 1 rub. 14 kopecks This category of the population was called state peasants (a 40-kopeck tax was equivalent to corvee or quitrent).

Residents of the city, who made up 3% of the country's population, were also assigned to the place where the poll tax was paid. All artisans were required to live in cities and enroll in guilds. City residents were divided into two categories: regular and irregular citizens. Merchants, industrialists and artisans were included in the regular membership. The townspeople who “found themselves in hired jobs and menial jobs” were considered irregular or “mean.” The court, the collection of taxes and urban improvement were transferred to city magistrates, elected by regular citizens. To manage the magistrates, the Chief Magistrate was created in 1721. The townspeople, although divided into separate categories, remained class groups of feudal society.

Peter I issued a decree in 1724 prohibiting peasants from leaving their landowners to earn money without their written permission. This was the beginning of the passport system in Russia. Also in 1724, an attempt was made to eradicate beggary in Russia in one day. All the sick and crippled were ordered to be registered and sent to almshouses set up at monasteries, and those able to work were to be returned to their previous place of residence.

Thus, under Peter, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class principle, regulated by state legislation, was clearly visible.

Absolute monarchy in the first quarter of the 18th century.

State structure. Rationalistic ideas of achieving the “common good” and “state interest” guided Peter’s actions. If before the Battle of Poltava there were isolated attempts to overcome the shortcomings of the old order system of governing the country, then later there was a complete reform of the central and local authorities.

In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the tsar himself. “The All-Russian Emperor,” it is written in the Military Regulations, “is an autocratic and unlimited monarch. God himself commands to obey his supreme power not only out of fear, but also out of conscience.” Back in 1704, the Cabinet was created - the personal royal office.

In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.” Senators were first sworn in, the text of which was written by Peter I.

In 1718-1721 the cumbersome and confusing system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions partially overlapped and did not have clear boundaries, 11 boards were established. A special building was built for them (now it is occupied by St. Petersburg University). Each collegium was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management: the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - external relations, the Military Collegium - the land armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - revenue collection, the State Collegium - state expenses, the Patrimonial Collegium - noble land ownership, the Manufacturer Collegium - industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg College. In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated.

The Synod, or Spiritual Collegium, established in 1721, became a kind of collegium. The creation of the Synod marked another step towards the subordination of the church to the state. Back in 1700 after the death of Patriarch Adrian new chapter Church was not elected, but a locum tenens of the patriarchal throne was appointed. And in 1721, the position of patriarch - the head of the Russian church - was abolished, and the secret of confession was practically abolished. Monitoring the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special government official - the chief prosecutor. In 1722, clergy staffs were approved (one priest for 150 households). Everyone who found themselves outside the state was subject to a poll tax. A double tax was imposed on the Old Believers.

In order to strengthen local power, the country in 1708 was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of the subordinate territories. Each province occupied a huge territory and therefore was in turn divided into provinces. There were 50 of them. A regiment of soldiers was stationed in each province, which made it possible to quickly send troops to suppress popular movements. The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties.

Thus, a single, centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of governance emerged for the entire country, in which the decisive role was played by the monarch, who relied on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. Only in the bodies of central institutions at the end of Peter’s reign there were more than 3 thousand people. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased.

The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.

Army and Navy. Under Peter I, the Russian "army and navy became one of the strongest in Europe. Since 1705, conscription was introduced in the country: 20 peasant households had to put up one recruit for lifelong service. Subsequently, soldiers began to be taken from a certain number of male souls. So a regular army was created with a single principle of recruitment, with uniform weapons and uniforms. New military regulations were introduced (1716), military schools were organized, a fleet of artillery pieces grew, and a fleet was created.

By the end of Peter's reign, the Russian land army numbered about 200 thousand people, including garrisons. In addition, the Cossacks gave 100 thousand. Under Peter, 48 were built battleships, 800 galleys with a crew of 28 thousand people.

Social contradictions in the first quarter of the 18th century. As noted by A.S. Pushkin, Peter I showed all the traits of an “impatient, autocratic landowner,” many of whose decrees were “written with a whip.” In 1705-1706 The archers, workers and townspeople, and fugitive peasants in Astrakhan rebelled and held the city for more than seven months. Peter sent his best commander, Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev, to suppress the uprising. Unrest continued in Bashkiria for almost seven years (1705-1711).

The most powerful popular movement in Peter's time was the uprising on the Don led by Kondraty Bulavin (1707-1708). The reasons for popular discontent should be sought in the strengthening of serfdom (increasing taxes in connection with wars, the introduction of conscription, etc.). Played a significant role in the uprising Don Cossacks, dissatisfied with the government’s attempts to subjugate the Don, which after the conquest of Azov ceased to play the role of a kind of barrier against Crimea. The authorities sought to prevent the peasants from fleeing to the Don; they were constantly searching for fugitives, sending military units there.

In 1707, Kondraty Bulavin with a small Cossack detachment attacked one of these units and defeated it. At first, Bulavin demanded the preservation of Don freedom and the old order on the Don. However, even then the rebels directed their anger against the Cossack elite (atamans and elders). Soon the uprising took on the character of a struggle against serfdom. K.A. Bulavin declared that he was going “to Rus' to beat the boyars.” In his “charming letters” he called for dealing with the authorities and establishing self-government, organizing life according to the model of the Cossack freemen.

The uprising covered a wide area. The Bulavinians captured Tsaritsyn, besieged the cities of Saratov and Azov, and operated near Voronezh. After the capture of the capital of the Don - the city of Cherkassk, K.A. Bulavin was proclaimed ataman of the Don. The government countered the isolated actions of the rebels with regular troops led by Prince V. Dolgoruky. Taking advantage of Bulavin’s failure near Azov, wealthy Cossacks organized a conspiracy. K.A. Bulavin was surrounded in his home in Cherkassk and killed. The death of the ataman did not mean the end of the uprising, which was finally suppressed on the Don only in 1708, and on the rest of Russia only in 1710.

Decree on succession to the throne. The son of Peter and Evdokia Lopukhina, Tsarevich Alexei grew up as a pious, secretive, indecisive man. He never managed to become his father’s comrade-in-arms, focusing on the circles of boyars close to his mother and who did not accept a sharp, violent break in the established traditions of his grandfather. In response to his father's reproaches of laziness, evil and stubborn disposition, and his demand to immediately go to the army, Alexei renounced the throne and then fled to Austria. By order of Peter, he was returned to Moscow and interrogated. During interrogation, the prince admitted to a conspiracy against his father, and in 1718 he was sentenced to execution. However, he did not die from execution, but, according to the official version, from shock at what he had done two days after the announcement of the verdict, at 28 years old. The true cause of Alexei's death has not yet been reliably established.

In 1722, Peter I issued the “Charter on the Succession to the Throne,” according to which the emperor himself could appoint an heir, based on the interests of the state. Moreover, the emperor could reverse the decision if the heir did not live up to expectations. Resistance to the decree was punishable by death, i.e. amounted to treason. The issuance of the decree was associated with Peter's personal tragedy - a conflict with his son from his first marriage, Alexei, and the desire of the reformer tsar to steadily follow the path of reform.

From his second wife, Ekaterina Alekseevna (Marta Skavronskaya - the daughter of a Latvian peasant, with whom he married in 1712), eleven children were born. However, by the time of Peter's death, only three daughters remained alive (Anna, Elizaveta and Natalya). The question of the heir to the throne remained open.

The meaning of reforms. Peter I the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century. so grandiose in their consequences that they give reason to talk about pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia.

How to evaluate Peter's "perestroika"? The attitude towards Peter and his reforms is a kind of touchstone that determines the views of historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural figures. What is this - a historical feat of the people or measures that doomed the country to ruin after Peter's reforms? What is this - a rupture, a collapse of the religious and moral unity of the people, which made nobles and officials foreigners in their own country, or a transition to a new quality that required new efforts on the traditional Russian historical path of development? These disputes continue to this day.

Reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century. are inseparable from the personality of Peter I - an outstanding commander and statesman. In his decisions, he relied on the then level of knowledge about society, guided by the ideas of “common benefit”, “state interest”, most fully realized in the doctrine of the absolutist state. In the conditions of feudal Russia, he implemented these ideas assertively, on a grand scale, sometimes disregarding the personal interests of his subjects. The king was always on the move - he created a fleet and regular army, reformed the apparatus of power, shaved beards and created scientific centers, led military operations.

Contradictory, explained by the peculiarities of the time and personal qualities, the figure of Peter the Great constantly attracted the attention of the most prominent writers (from M.V. Lomonosov, A.S. Pushkin to A.N. Tolstoy), artists and sculptors (E. Falcone, V.I. Surikov, N.N. Ge, V.A. Serov, M.M. Antokolsky), theater and cinema figures (V.M. Petrov, N.K. Cherkasov, etc.), composers (A.P. Petrov ). Undoubtedly, Peter I was endowed with the traits of a charismatic (endowed with unique personality traits) leader.

NOBLERY EMPIRE IN THE SECOND QUARTER - MIDDLE XVIII century. PALACE COUPS

By figuratively IN. Klyuchevsky, this period of our history was called the “era of palace coups.” In the 37 years from the death of Peter I to the accession of Catherine II, the throne was occupied by six monarchs who received the throne as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups. Two of them - Ivan Antonovich and Peter III were overthrown by force and killed. A number of historians define the second quarter - mid-18th century. as “the era of temporary workers”, “a period of political instability”. They emphasize that the throne in this era was occupied mainly by women and children, in which a huge role was played by favorites, temporary workers or, as they were called then, “fit people.”

It is probably most correct to evaluate this time as development noble empire in the period from Peter's reforms to the new major modernization of the country under Catherine II. In the second quarter - mid-18th century. there were no major reforms.

Peter's reforms stabilized the country. New institutions and social structures created a certain stability of society. The Guard became a major, if not the decisive, force in determining policy. The guard was used both for the personal protection of the emperor and for organizing control over the activities of various institutions. The positions of the guard were formed by the fighting palace factions. Who would occupy the throne in St. Petersburg largely depended on the position of the guard regiments. The Guard actively intervened in dynastic disputes, and then the struggle for power took the form of palace coups. This allowed some historians to argue that the actions of the guard were a kind of emphasis, “a guards amendment to unbridled absolutism.”

If we try to isolate the resultant from the interaction of the three main forces - the nobility, the peasantry and the absolutist state, then it will reflect the expansion of the rights and privileges of the nobility, the further enslavement of the peasantry and the attempts of state power to adapt the apparatus of the bureaucratic-bureaucratic machine to changing living conditions.

Catherine I. Peter died on January 28, 1725, leaving no order for a successor. In terrible torment caused by a malignant disease of the prostate gland or urolithiasis, he, according to an insufficiently proven version, was able to write only two words: “Give everything...” The emperor did not leave behind any sons. The daughters were born before the marriage to Catherine. The real contenders for the throne after the death of the emperor were his wife Catherine and grandson Peter, the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei. The struggle for the throne began between the “insignificant heirs of the northern giant” (A.S. Pushkin).

There were clearly two factions of nobility at court. One of them consisted of the highest dignitaries promoted under Peter I. Among them, the most important role was played by the rootless prince A.D. Menshikov. Their candidate for the throne was Catherine. Another group was represented by well-born aristocrats led by Prince D.M. Golitsyn, who nominated Peter P. While the Senate and senior dignitaries were discussing who to transfer the throne to, the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments openly sided with Catherine I (1725-1727). A.D. became the de facto ruler of the country. Menshikov, the first of a long line of favorites, most of whom first of all paid attention to their pockets and their interests.

For better government, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body that limited the power of the Senate. It included A.D. Menshikov, F.M. Apraksin, G.I. Golovkin, P.A. Tolstoy, A.I. Osterman, D.M. Golitsyn and Holstein Duke Karl Friedrich - husband of Peter I's eldest daughter Anna. The majority of the members of the Supreme Privy Council were Peter I's closest advisers, only Prince D.M. Golitsyn belonged to the old nobility. Attempt by P.A. Tolstoy to speak out against A.D. Menshikov led to his exile and death on Solovki.

Peter II. Shortly before her death in 1727, 43-year-old Catherine I signed a “testament” - a will that determined the sequence of succession to the throne. The closest heir was determined to be the son of Tsarevich Alexei - Peter II, he was to be followed by Peter's daughters: Anna and her heirs, Elizabeth and her heirs.

The throne was taken by 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. HELL. Menshikov, wanting to strengthen his influence in the state, betrothed his daughter Maria to Peter II. However, His Serene Highness clearly overestimated his strength. When he became seriously ill, a cunning and dexterous nobleman from the time of Peter the Great, A.I. Osterman, the tutor of Peter II, did everything to eliminate A.D. Menshikov. HELL. Menshikov was arrested in 1727, deprived of his awards and fortune, and together with his family was exiled to the Siberian city of Berezov (now Tyumen region), where he ended his life in 1729.

The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. In it, all affairs were carried out by four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyn, as well as the master of intrigue A.I. Osterman. The Dolgorukies came to the fore. Sixteen-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the Tsar’s closest friend in hound hunting and his other pastimes. Ivan's sister Catherine became the "sovereign bride". The nobles who came to Moscow for the coronation and wedding, as well as those who moved to old capital The court witnessed the illness and death of Peter II in the fifteenth year of his life. Peter's death occurred precisely on the day of the announced wedding. The Romanov dynasty ended in the male line. The question of a new emperor had to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.

Conspiracy of the Supreme Leaders. After long consultations, the leaders chose the senior line of the dynasty, associated with the brother of Peter I - Ivan V.

The daughter of Ivan V Alekseevich Anna was given in marriage to the Duke of Courland under Peter and, having become a widow, lived in one of the Baltic cities - Mitava (now Jelgava). When inviting Anna Ioannovna to the Russian throne, the leaders took into account that Anna had no political connections with the Russian nobility. The leaders developed special conditions - conditions on the basis of which Anna was supposed to rule the country. The new empress took upon herself the obligation not to marry without the permission of the supreme leaders and not to appoint an heir, and to decide the most important matters in the state only with the participation of the Supreme Privy Council.

Some historians believe that the defeat of the rulers is a missed chance to limit the monarchy. Real events in which the nobility and guards who were in Moscow took part indicate the dominance of a different trend.

Upon arrival in Moscow, Anna Ioannovna was presented with at least 20 noble projects. The main thought of the nobles boiled down to the wishes of the empress to “reign unlimitedly and autocratically”, “to accept autocracy as your glorious and praiseworthy ancestors had.”

Just two weeks after her arrival in Moscow, Anna broke down in front of the leaders and declared “her perception of autocracy.” During the reprisal against the rulers, Ivan Dolgoruky was executed, as a forged will was discovered about the occupation of the throne by his sister, the “empress-bride,” his father and sister were exiled to Berezov. The Supreme Privy Council in 1731 was replaced by a Cabinet of three ministers headed by A.I. Osterman. Four years later, Anna Ioannovna equated the signatures of three cabinet ministers with one of her own.

Anna Ioannovna. At the age of 37, Anna Ioannovna took the Russian throne (1730-1740). This was an already established personality. Anna Ioannovna was not distinguished by her beauty, bright mind, or education. She had little interest in the affairs of the state, transferring control to her favorite, Ernst Johann Biron, Duke of Courland (from 1737), an ambitious but limited man. The reign of Anna Ioannovna was called "Bironovschina", which became the personification of the dominance of foreigners in governing the country.

All key positions in the country were in the hands of the Germans. Foreign affairs were led by A.I. Osterman, the army was commanded by B.-K. Minich, guard - F.-K. Levenwolde. The Academy of Sciences was headed by I.D. Schumacher. Adventurers penetrated the Russian economy and robbed the country with impunity, such as, for example, Shemberg, who robbed factories in the Urals. “The Poltava winner was humiliated,” wrote S.M. Solovyov, “he enslaved Biron, who said: “You, Russians.” An attempt by A.P. Volynsky, who served under Peter I and held the important post of cabinet minister under Anna. organizing a conspiracy against Anna Ioannovna and German dominance ended unsuccessfully. He and his closest supporters were executed.

The symbol of Anna's reign became the Secret Chancellery, headed by A.I. Ushakov, who monitored protests against the empress and “state crimes” (the famous “word and deed”). 10 thousand people passed through the Secret Chancellery.

The nobles fought to expand their rights and privileges. The absolutist state met these demands.

Thus, under Anna Ioannovna, the distribution of land to the nobles was resumed. In 1731, sole inheritance, introduced by Peter the Great's decree of 1714, was abolished. Thus, the estates were recognized as the full property of the nobility. Two new guards regiments were created - Izmailovsky and Horse Guards, where a significant part of the officers were foreigners. Since the 30s of the 18th century. noble minors were allowed to enroll in the guards regiments, train at home and, after an exam, be promoted to officers. In 1732, the Land Gentry was opened cadet corps for training nobles. This was followed by the opening of the Naval, Artillery, and Page Corps. Since 1736, the service life for nobles was limited to 25 years.

The peasants became more and more firmly attached to the personality of the owner. Since 1731, landowners or their clerks began to take an oath of allegiance to the emperor on behalf of the peasants. In the same year, the collection of per capita money from subject peasants was transferred to the hands of the nobles in connection with their debt to the state. The landowner received the right to set his own punishment for the peasant’s escape. In the 30-40s of the 18th century. forced labor began to dominate almost all industries. In 1736, factory workers were permanently attached to the factories and could not be sold separately from the manufacture.

Ivan VI Antonovich. Anna Ioannovna decided that her heir would be the son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna and the Duke of Brauschweig - Ivan Antonovich. Ivan Antonovich was born in the year of Anna Ioannovna’s death. The empress appointed E.I. as regent (ruler) for a two-month-old child. Birona. Less than a month later he was arrested by the guards on the orders of Field Marshal B.-K. Miniha. Biron was exiled to Pelym (Tobolsk province), from where he moved five weeks later to Yaroslavl. (After returning from a 22-year exile, E.I. Biron received control of Courland from Catherine II and faithfully served her until his death in 1772)

His mother Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed regent for the royal child. The unsinkable A.I. began to play a leading role under it. Osterman, who survived five reigns and all temporary rulers.

The Russian nobility pinned its hopes on the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. In 1741, with the assistance of French and Swedish diplomats interested in reorienting Russian foreign policy, another palace coup took place. With the help of the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, Elizaveta Petrovna ascended the throne.

Elizaveta Petrovna. Both political and statesman Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761) did not stand out among her immediate predecessors. Contemporaries note that she was an extremely attractive thirty-two-year-old woman, cheerful and friendly. This is confirmed by the portraits of the empress that have reached us. Her passion was dresses, balls, fireworks. Music became an integral part of the life of the court: the harp, mandolin, and guitar entered the life of those times. The dazzling brilliance of the Elizabethan Baroque seems to indirectly indicate endless entertainment, and not the painstaking work of the court.

Indeed, Elizabeth was little involved in state affairs, entrusting them to her favorites - the brothers Razumovsky, Shuvalov, Vorontsov, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. Russian nobles replaced the foreigners. B.-K. Minikh and A.I. Osterman were sentenced to quartering, but Elizabeth replaced the punishment with mounding, fulfilling her promise not to use the death penalty in Russia during her reign. A.I. Osterman was sent to Berezov, where he died six years later. B.-K. Before the accession of Peter III in 1761, Minikh served his sentence in Pelym, where he had once exiled E.-I. Birona. Young Ivan Antonovich and his parents were first imprisoned in Kholmogory (near Arkhangelsk), and in 1756 Ivan Antonovich was secretly taken to the Shlisselburg fortress.

Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed the goal of her reign to be a return to the order of her father, Peter the Great. The rights of the Senate, the Berg and Manufactory Collegium, and the Chief Magistrate were restored. Under Elizabeth, a university was opened in Moscow (1755, January 25). The conference at the highest court took the place of the abolished Cabinet of Ministers. The activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible.

Social policy remained the same: expansion of the rights and privileges of the nobility, which was achieved by limiting the rights and regulating the life of peasants. In 1746, only nobles were granted the right to own land and peasants. In 1760, landowners received the right to send peasants who opposed them to Siberia, counting them instead of recruits. Peasants were prohibited from conducting monetary transactions without the permission of the landowner. The landowner performed police functions in relation to the peasants.

To support the nobility, the Noble Land Bank was established. A similar bank was opened for the merchants. In the interests of both the nobility and merchants, internal customs duties were abolished in 1754, which opened up wide opportunities for trade in agricultural and industrial goods. In 1744-1747 The second census of the taxable population was carried out. In 1755, factory peasants were assigned as permanent (possession) workers in Ural factories. Thus, the landowners received the right to dispose not only of the land, but of the person and property of the peasant.

Peter III. Elizaveta Petrovna reigned for twenty years and one month. Even during her lifetime, she began to think about who to pass the throne to. For this purpose, her 14-year-old nephew Karl Peter Ulrich was discharged from Holstein (the capital is the city of Kiel), who received the name Peter after converting to Orthodoxy. He was a great-nephew Charles XII on the paternal side and at the same time the grandson of Peter I maternal line. Even according to the testament of Catherine I, he had the right to the Russian throne. Upon reaching the age of Peter III, the Prussian king Frederick II recommended to him as a wife the daughter of one of the small German princes, Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, who received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna in Russia. The young couple had a son, Pavel, in 1747.

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, 33-year-old Peter III (1761-1762) became Emperor of Russia. His favorite pastime was playing soldiers. The quarrelsome, unbalanced Peter III did not like Russians, but he idolized Frederick II. A fan of Prussian drill, Peter III said that he preferred to be a colonel in the Prussian army than to be an emperor in Russia. This “adult child” has not developed as a mature personality, most He spent time in revelry and loved shift parades.

The six-month reign of Peter III amazes with the abundance of adopted state acts. During this time, 192 decrees were issued. The most important of them was the “Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberty to the Russian nobility” on February 18, 1762. The Manifesto exempted nobles from compulsory state and military service. A nobleman could leave service at any time, except during war. It was allowed to travel abroad and even enter foreign service, and educate children at home. The nobility increasingly turned from a servant into a privileged class. “According to the requirement of historical logic and social justice,” wrote V.O. Klyuchevsky, “the next day, February 19, the abolition of serfdom should have followed; it followed the next day, only 99 years later.” The golden age of the Russian nobility has arrived.

The secularization of church lands in favor of the state was announced, which strengthened the state treasury (the decree was finally implemented by Catherine II in 1764). Peter III stopped the persecution of the Old Believers and wanted to equalize the rights of all religions, force the clergy to wear secular dress, focusing on Lutheranism. The Secret Chancellery was liquidated, people convicted under Elizaveta Petrovna were returned from exile and disgrace. At the same time, Peter behaved insultingly towards the guards, whom he called the Janissaries. The emperor wanted to withdraw the guard from the capital, choosing the Holsteiners as his support.

As we see, on the one hand, Peter III carried out decrees that seemed to continue the line of his predecessors, sometimes he went even further than them. But, on the other hand, his actions were characterized by unceremoniousness, tactlessness, chaos, and thoughtlessness in politics, combined with rudeness and disrespect for his wife and family, for loved ones, drunkenness and tomfoolery. All this could not but cause discontent among Russian society. It is hardly possible to say that Peter III had a well-thought-out program of action. The verdict of the court, guards and clergy was unanimous: Peter III does not look like a real sovereign.

Social explosions. The expansion of the rights and privileges of the nobility was achieved through an attack on the rights of the bulk of the country's population - the peasantry. The state experienced enormous difficulties in collecting taxes, as the flight of peasants to the outskirts of the country intensified. In conditions when tsarist illusions were strong among the people, impostors appeared. Researchers note at the turn of the 50-60s of the 18th century. more than 60 uprisings of monastic peasants.

The mining population of the Urals, and above all the assigned peasants, whose responsibility included performing factory work on account of the poll tax, took an active part in the struggle for their rights. From 1754 to 1764, unrest was observed at 54 of the largest enterprises in the Urals. They covered about 200 thousand registered peasants. In the 30-40s of the 18th century. There were uprisings twice in Bashkiria. The arbitrariness of the tsarist administration and serfdom caused mass unrest numerous peoples Urals and Volga region. The country faced the need for new transformations. They were carried out under Catherine II.

Foreign policy. Foreign policy tasks in the second quarter - mid-18th century were solved by Russia less energetically than they were under Peter I. The country was moving away from the tensions of Peter's time. B.-K. Minich began restructuring the army in a European manner. The fleet was decrepit, construction took a lot of effort defensive lines in the south and southeast of the country. Command posts in the army were in the hands of foreigners.

Polish-Russian relations. After the death of Augustus II in 1733, kinglessness began in Poland, due to the struggle of gentry groups for power. The contender for the Polish throne was the French-backed Stanislaw Leszczynski, the son-in-law of the French king. Russia, with the support of Austria, insisted on the accession of Augustus III, the son of the deceased king. Stanislav Leshchinsky was elected to the throne, which became the reason for the Russian-Polish war of 1733-1735. The most important event of the war was the capture of B.-K. Minich of Gdansk (Danzig). Leshchinsky fled on a French ship. Augustus III became King of Poland.

Russian-Turkish war. The Crimean Tatars violated the borders of Russia, which became the reason for the Russian-Turkish war of 1735-1739. Austria was Russia's ally in the war. In 1736, the Russian army took Bakhchisarai and Azov, and the following year - Ochakov. However, the general battle of B.-K. Minikh avoided, and the Krymchaks retained the army. Only in 1739 were the Ottomans defeated near Stavuchany (near Khotin - today in the Chernivtsi region, on the Dniester River). The Russian army was ready to cross the Danube. However, Russia's ally Austria, having suffered a number of defeats, agreed to a separate peace with Turkey. In 1739, Türkiye and Russia concluded the Peace of Belgrade. Azov, however, without fortifications, and a small territory between the Seversky Donets and Bug passed to Russia. Access to the Black Sea remained with Turkey.

Russian-Swedish war. Sweden tried to take revenge for the defeat in the Northern War; I declared it to the Russian warrior. The Russian-Swedish War (1741-1743) was fought on the territory of Finland and ended with the Peace of Abos (Turku). Sweden confirmed the results of the Northern War. A small territory in Finland up to the Kyumen River went to Russia.

The beginning of the accession of Kazakhstan to Russia. At the beginning of the 18th century. The eastern and central regions of Kazakhstan were the scene of internecine struggle and aggression of the Dzungars. The Kazakhs were united into three zhuzes (tribes): Junior, Middle and Senior, the first of which bordered on Russia. In 1731, Anna Ioannovna signed a document accepting the Junior Kazakh Zhuz into Russia. Sultan Abulkhair and his elders swore allegiance to the king. Nine years later in 1740-1743. The Middle Zhuz voluntarily became part of Russia. Orenburg (1742) and fortresses on the Yaik River were built.

Seven Years' War. In 1756-1763 broke out Anglo-French war for the colonies. Two coalitions of powers took part in the war. One of them was Prussia, England and Portugal. Their opponents were France, Spain, Austria, Sweden and Saxony, with Russia on their side. Russia understood that Prussia was seeking to capture Poland and part of the Baltic states, and this would mean the end of Russian influence in this region.

In the summer of 1757, the Russian army moved to East Prussia. Soon, near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf, Russian troops inflicted their first defeat on the Prussians. In 1758, Koenigsberg (now Kaliningrad) was taken.

The Prussian king Frederick II, considered invincible, sent his main forces against Russia. In the battle near the village of Zorndorf (1758) and the general battle of the village of Kunersdorf (1759), the army of Frederick II was destroyed. In 1760, Russian troops entered Berlin, where they stayed for several days. The key to Berlin was transferred for eternal storage to the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. In the battles of the Seven Years' War, P.A. won the first major victories. Rumyantsev and A.V. Suvorov, who later glorified Russian military art.

However, the victories of Russian soldiers did not give the country real results. Disagreements among the allies and especially the accession of Peter III dramatically changed Russia's position in the war. In 1762, Russia made peace with Prussia and returned all conquered territories to it. However, during the war, Prussia was weakened, and Russia's international authority strengthened. The main result of the Seven Years' War was the victory of England over France in the struggle for colonies and trade supremacy. The anti-national foreign policy of Peter III, as well as outbreaks of social protest, pushed the guards to a new coup in favor of Catherine II.

Factors leading to the formation of nation states. Features of education Russian state.

The reign of Ivan III and Vasily III. Annexation of Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Novgorod the Great, and Vyatka land to Moscow. Overthrow of the Horde yoke. Entry into the single state of Tver, Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan.

Political system. Strengthening the power of the Moscow Grand Dukes. Code of Law of 1497 Changes in the structure of feudal land ownership. Boyar, church and local land ownership.

The beginning of the formation of central and local authorities. Reducing the number of appanages. Boyar Duma. Localism. Church and grand ducal power. The growth of the international authority of the Russian state.

Economic recovery and the rise of Russian culture after the Kulikovo victory. Moscow is the center of the emerging culture of the Great Russian people. Reflection of political trends in literature. Chronicle. "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir." Historical stories. "Zadonshchina". "The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev." Hagiographic literature. "Walking" by Afanasy Nikitin. Construction of the Moscow Kremlin. Theophanes the Greek. Andrey Rublev.