The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. At the beginning of the century, art was finally separated from court poetry and “album” poems; for the first time in the history of Russian literature, the features of a professional poet appeared; lyrics became more natural, simpler, and more humane. This century has given us such masters. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of Russian literary language.
However, it was part of the Christian idea that love is not a prerequisite for marriage, but that marriage must lead to love. However, in this view, love primarily meant the fulfillment of mutual rights and obligations, rather than a mutual feeling of love.
Thus, when love was mentioned, it was not sensual pleasure, but procreation, and not mutual devotion, but support in the struggle for life, and not passionate lust, but reliable attachment. In noble circles, where marriage was considered a necessary evil social status, even adultery, at least on the human side, was widespread and accepted by society. Often the contact with his mistresses was more intense than with his wife. In general, the spouses “at that time did not form an island of intimate conditions, but public places».
The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry.
Sentimentalism: Dominant " human nature“Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, which distinguished it from classicism. Sentimentalism is an ideal human activity did not believe in a “reasonable” reorganization of the world, but in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. His hero is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him. By origin and by conviction, the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; rich spiritual world the commoner is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.
In the twentieth century, the emotionality of marriage gradually became love, rather than fortune or labor, the only legitimate marital ground. The expectations of marriage were now personal happiness, conjugal love and exclusive intimacy. This new concept of "marriage with love" meant that children should not be married without their consent and that the family should open up to the outdoors, especially girls, whose education was almost exclusively in the interior, to ensure a freer social interaction and communication with men.
Karamzin: The era of sentimentalism in Russia was opened by Karamzin’s publication of “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and the story “ Poor Lisa" (back at the end of the 18th century)
Karamzin’s poetry, which developed in line with European sentimentalism, was radically different from traditional poetry of his time, brought up on the odes of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The most significant differences were the following: 1) Karamzin is not interested in external, physical world, but the inner, spiritual world of man. His poems speak “the language of the heart,” not the mind. 2) The object of Karamzin’s poetry is “ simple life", and to describe it he uses simple poetic forms- poor rhymes, avoids the abundance of metaphors and other tropes popular in the poems of his predecessors. 3) Another difference between Karamzin’s poetics is that the world is fundamentally unknowable for him, the poet recognizes the existence different points view of the same object. Karamzin's language reform: Karamzin's prose and poetry had a decisive influence on the development of the Russian literary language. 1) Karamzin purposefully refused to use Church Slavonic vocabulary and grammar, bringing the language of his works to the everyday language of his era and using grammar and syntax as a model French. 2) Karamzin introduced many new words into the Russian language - both neologisms (“charity”, “love”, “freethinking”, “attraction”, “first-class”, “humane”) and barbarisms (“sidewalk”, “coachman” ). 3). He was also one of the first to use the letter E. Literary victory“Arzamas” strengthened its victory over “Beseda” language changes, which Karamzin introduced.
This changed view of love and marriage lay at the heart of the new ideal of the bourgeois family, directed against the nobility. It should be noted, however, that even in the bourgeois families that first postulated this new ideal marriage, the autonomous decision of the two partners was often simply a fiction. But even if there were a gap between forms of justification and reality, the new discourse on the marriage of love influenced social action, at least in the long run. Sesse sees in this new concept marriage as a love marriage big potential for conflict: on the one hand, love must now become the decisive factor in the choice of partners, on the other hand, social precepts according to which the descent of a partner was more important than his uniqueness.
Karamzin's sentimentalism had big influence on the development of Russian literature: it inspired, among other things, the romanticism of Zhukovsky and the work of Pushkin.
Romanticism: ideological and artistic direction in culture late XVIII century - first half of the 19th century century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment. Romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. The image of a “noble savage” armed with “ folk wisdom"and not spoiled by civilization.
The corresponding discourse about love shapes not only norms, expectations and behavior, but also the way of feeling. Sasse talks about " historical changes in the cultural achievements of the formation of sexuality.” Over the course of a century, he defines three interdependent concepts of love: rational love, tender love and romantic love. In the early 20th century, many public science publications required the bride and groom to choose a spouse. Emotional Traits, such as understanding and love, became the legitimacy of marriage.
However, at the beginning of the century, “love” did not mean passionate, romantic love in the real sense, but “reasonable love”, based on the ideals of the Enlightenment, that is, a kind of platonic spiritual connection: “Reasonable love is love for a person in whom a person believed or recognized perfection.” Love necessarily arises from an understanding of the dignity of the partner, and therefore the choice is determined primarily by moral rather than personal criteria; It is not individuality that is important, but adequacy. The main focus was on the spiritual relationship of the couple, the “consensus of mind.”
In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad and romantic drama are created. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible.
Affects were placed in the reserve of reason, passionate love was rejected as unreasonable, irrational and uncontrollable. The main purpose of marriage was to conceive and raise children. Spouses who refuted this goal were explicitly reprimanded in Moral Weeklies. However, the purpose of marriage, the mutual enhancement of personal happiness, was increasingly emphasized.
In the 19th century, the idea of love developed further into the concept of "tender love". This form of love also remained tied to the precept of virtue, but reason now played a less dominant role: “Love takes no place in considering, weighing and comparing considerations, but arises from a sense of attraction.” It was assumed that in the sense of love for a partner, spontaneous recognition of his moral qualities. Thus, the concept of affectionate love remained under the dictates of virtue, and here the partner had to meet certain moral qualities.
The founder of Russian romanticism is Zhukovsky: Russian poet, translator, critic. At first he wrote sentimentalism because of his close acquaintance with Karamzin, but in 1808, together with the ballad “Lyudmila” (an adaptation of “Lenora” by G. A. Burger), which came from his pen, Russian literature included a new, completely special content - romanticism. Participated in the militia. In 1816 he became a reader under the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. In 1817 he became Princess Charlotte's Russian teacher - future empress Alexandra Feodorovna, and in the fall of 1826 he was appointed to the position of “mentor” of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander II.
Passionate love was further rejected: it was considered an expression of pride and pure instinct. Ses sees this view as an expression of the fundamental dilemma of the new idea of loving marriage: marriage must be the result of a previous love affair, but only in marriage can sexuality find its rightful place, since the woman had to be left untouched. To overcome this problem, love was desesualized, describing it as a form of friendship, separating love and sexuality. After marriage, sexuality was permitted for the purpose of producing children.
The poetry of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. In the views of the progressive part Russian society 30s XIX century Features of a romantic worldview appeared, caused by dissatisfaction with modern reality. This worldview was characterized by deep disappointment, rejection of reality, and disbelief in the possibility of progress. On the other hand, the romantics were characterized by a desire for lofty ideals, a desire for a complete resolution of the contradictions of existence and an understanding of the impossibility of this (the gap between ideal and reality).
Thus, sexual needs were separated from their attachment to intimate relationships and focused on marriage. In marriage, sexuality became legitimate because “the egocentrism of lust communicates with moral precepts and transforms it into the altruism of virtuous feelings.” Premarital feelings craving must seem sinful to people who have internalized this concept of tender love.
Around the 19th century, rational became romantic love: the affection of spouses for each other should continue to form the basis of marriage. At the center, however, was no longer the “rational love” of the Enlightenment, but passionate love, “individual sexy love and eroticism,” the mental fusion of two partners. It was no longer standards and virtues that were decisive, but the charm of lovers for each other. It was believed that both lovers were in love with each other, complementing each other, believing that you can love only one person.
Lermontov's work most fully reflects the romantic worldview that was formed in Nicholas era. In his poetry, the main conflict of romanticism - the contradiction between ideal and reality - reaches extreme tension, which significantly distinguishes him from the romantic poets early XIX V. The main object of Lermontov's lyrics is the inner world of man - deep and contradictory. our time". Key theme in creativity Lermontov theme tragic loneliness of the individual in a hostile and unjust world. All wealth is subordinated to the disclosure of this topic poetic images, motives, artistic means, all the diversity of thoughts, experiences, feelings of the lyrical hero.
Such love may lead to marriage, but it does not have to. Woman was often enthusiastically transformed as man's Redeemer, but was still considered subordinate to man. However, this submission to man was not related to coercion, but was based on the character of the woman.
The wife is not subject, so the husband has the right to force her, she submits to his at will and morality, prompting the desire to obey. According to Zanse, women's redeeming function in the private sphere meant their complete social negation.
However, over the course of the century, Hegel's marriage-institutionalism, which saw marriage as having entered into the order of society and strongly opposed a concept of marriage that neglected everything institutional, became increasingly more prominent than the concept of romantic love. However, the concept of romantic love influenced the needs of people of the time and shaped what they hoped for love and marriage.
An important motif in Lermontov’s works is, on the one hand, the feeling of “immense forces” human soul, and on the other - uselessness, futility active work, dedication.
In his various works, themes of homeland, love, poet and poetry are visible, reflecting the features of the poet’s bright individuality and worldview.
Central to the construction of the family and the position of individuals within it is how the natural categories of female and male gender are linked to social attributes and hierarchies, so that gender emerges as a social construct. The distinction between sex and gender allows us to understand the division between “male” and “female” as a cultural construction and recognize that different gender roles are not an expression of the “natural” characteristics of women and men. Recognizing that femininity and masculinity do not exist outside of their discursive composition, since natural categories mainly associated with Butler.
Tyutchev: Philosophical lyrics F.I. Tyutchev is both the completion and overcoming of romanticism in Russia. Starting with odic works, he gradually found his own style. It was something like a fusion of Russian odic poetry XVIII centuries and traditions of European romanticism. In addition, he never wanted to see himself in the role of a professional writer and even neglected the results of his own creativity.
However, he goes further and asks whether there is even a pre-cultural sex. The family has great importance in construction gender stereotypes"a woman and a man". Here, in socialization, what roles are best occupied by men and women, and what feminine or masculine qualities are expected in each case.
Looking back at the history of the family, Weber-Kellermann considers the principle of patriarchy to be the great leitmotif. Due to the transition from family form"whole house" to the nuclear family this principle was rather reinforced since the father was at home. Still new powers due to the fact that he created the only mediation for his people to the outside world, work and society, while the protected family inner world merged around central figure mothers and housewives.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol.
Early poetry A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. His southern link coincided with a nearby historical events and in Pushkin the hope was ripe for the achievability of the ideals of freedom and liberty (heroics were reflected in Pushkin’s lyrics modern history 1820s), but after several years of cold reception for his works, he soon realized that the world was ruled not by opinions, but by authorities. In the works of Pushkin of the romantic period, the conviction matured that there are objective laws in the world that a person cannot shake, no matter how brave and beautiful his thoughts are. This determined the tragic tone of Pushkin’s muse.
While the woman in the "whole house" was integrated into her division economic system labor, her functional area has now experienced a huge decline. Thus, the Moral Weekly expresses the girl's opinion that family status is a state in which "our whole sex lives or claims to live." In marriage, the woman was completely absorbed by the man. Thus, Fichte declares at the end of the century: “In the concept of marriage, the most indefinite subordination of women is subject to the will of man.”
By getting married, a woman ceases to lead the life of a man, since she is now part of her life. The man is. Among other things, women lacked autonomy in the area civil rights, such as the right to vote, the right to education and independence in legal transactions. Becker points out that as a result complete exclusion women from the sphere social tasks the emphasis on her inevitably had to focus on her body and her physicality: Her symbolic as well as her cultural "capital" is her body, so that the identity dictated by it is ultimately reduced to the physical.
Gradually, in the 30s, the first “signs” of realism appeared in Pushkin.
Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The socio-political, philosophical issues. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
Although women's beauty was a deciding factor in the marriage market, education could have negative impact, threatening the patriarchal position of man. Women's activities as housewives were not understood as work, but as a natural act of love. All sex life was taboo, divorce was considered dishonorable. While extramarital affairs were accepted with a wink in the eyes of women, legitimate sexuality was tied to marriage for women, and illegitimate children were a disaster. The consensus was that "through adultery a man does not fall so deeply as a woman." Her work as a mother and wife is her highest.
Realism in art, 1) the truth of life, embodied by specific means of art. 2) A historically specific form of artistic consciousness of modern times, the beginning of which dates back either to the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or from the Enlightenment ("Enlightenment realism"), or from the 30s. 19th century (“actually realism”). The leading principles of realism of the 19th - 20th centuries: objective reflection of the essential aspects of life in combination with the height of the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social signs, and physical, intellectual and spiritual characteristics); preference in methods of depicting “forms of life itself,” but along with the use, especially in the 20th century, conditional forms(myth, symbol, parable, grotesque); predominant interest in the problem of “personality and society”
In normal behavior, the woman in question threatened not only her own reputation, but also her father or husband. Not only a violation of strict sexual morality before or during marriage committed by a woman, but already a lower social background or even unattractive appearance wife, was enough to injure a man in his real or supposed reputation, and ridicule him to deliver.
Just as a woman could harm her husband's prestige, she also contributed to the beauty and normative behavior increase social and social capital. In the twentieth century, the distribution of roles between men and women was outwardly fixed in a way that had hitherto been known only from court etiquette. According to Weber-Kellermann, women's position in the family had never been so subordinate and dependent, since the second half of the goals were primarily to improve educational opportunities for women and to encourage women's employment.
Gogol was not a thinker, but he was great artist. He himself said about the properties of his talent: “I only did well what I took from reality, from the data known to me.” It could not have been simpler or stronger to indicate the deep basis of realism that lay in his talent.
Critical realism is an artistic method and literary direction which developed in the 19th century. Its main feature is the image human character V organic connection with social circumstances, along with deep social analysis inner world person.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This artistic type « extra person", the example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type “ little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “ Stationmaster».
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys dead Souls, Various types landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices. The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. Full satirical images and works by A.S. Pushkin. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society - characteristic all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque (bizarre, comic, tragicomic) form.
The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The development of poetry subsides somewhat.
It is worth noting poetic works Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce poetry social issues. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
Literary process the end of the 19th century discovered the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of small things literary genre- a storyteller, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. Realistic tradition began to fade. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature, distinctive features which included mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens new page in the history of Russian literature.
On the same scale and with the same degree of talent, new social changes were needed, new level public life and culture. 4. Role artistic detail in the work of I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons” In his work, the great Russian writer Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev used a wide range of literary devices: landscapes, compositional structure, system of secondary images, speech...
Karamzina M.Yu. Lotman. – M.: Book, 1987. – 336 S.. 2. Sturgeon E. Three lives of Karamzin / Evgeny Sturgeon. – M.: Sovremennik, 1985. – 302 P. 3. Klyucheskiy V. O. Historical portraits/ V. O. Klyuchevsky. – M.: Pravda, 1991. – 623 P. 4. Esin B.I. History of Russian journalism of the 19th century /V. A. Sadovnichy. – M.: Moscow University Publishing House, 2008. – 304 P. 5. Kuleshov V.I. History...
The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. At the beginning of the century, art was finally separated from court poetry and “album” poems; for the first time in the history of Russian literature, the features of a professional poet appeared; lyrics became more natural, simpler, and more humane. This century has given us such masters. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language.
However, it was part of the Christian idea that love is not a prerequisite for marriage, but that marriage must lead to love. However, in this view, love primarily meant the fulfillment of mutual rights and obligations, rather than a mutual feeling of love.
Thus, when love was mentioned, it was not sensual pleasure, but procreation, and not mutual devotion, but support in the struggle for life, and not passionate lust, but reliable attachment. In noble circles, where marriage was considered a necessary evil by social status, even adultery, at least on the part of the individual, was widespread and socially accepted. Often the contact with his mistresses was more intense than with his wife. In general, the spouses “at that time did not form an island of intimate conditions, but public places.”
The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry.
Sentimentalism: Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant of “human nature,” which distinguished it from classicism. Sentimentalism believed that the ideal of human activity was not the “reasonable” reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. His hero is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him. By origin and by conviction, the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common people is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.
Karamzin: The era of sentimentalism in Russia was opened by Karamzin’s publication of “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and the story “Poor Liza.” (back at the end of the 18th century)
Karamzin's poetry, which developed in line with European sentimentalism, was radically different from the traditional poetry of his time, brought up on the odes of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The most significant differences were the following: 1) Karamzin is not interested in the external, physical world, but in the internal, spiritual world of man. His poems speak “the language of the heart,” not the mind. 2) The object of Karamzin’s poetry is “simple life”, and to describe it he uses simple poetic forms - poor rhymes, avoids the abundance of metaphors and other tropes popular in the poems of his predecessors. 3) Another difference between Karamzin’s poetics is that the world is fundamentally unknowable for him; the poet recognizes the existence of different points of view on the same subject.
Karamzin's language reform: p Karamzin's rose and poetry had a decisive influence on the development of the Russian literary language. 1) Karamzin purposefully abandoned the use of Church Slavonic vocabulary and grammar, bringing the language of his works to the everyday language of his era and using the grammar and syntax of the French language as a model. 2) Karamzin introduced many new words into the Russian language - both neologisms (“charity”, “love”, “freethinking”, “attraction”, “first-class”, “humane”) and barbarisms (“sidewalk”, “coachman” ). 3). He was also one of the first to use the letter E. The literary victory of “Arzamas” over “Beseda” strengthened the victory of the linguistic changes that Karamzin introduced.
Karamzin's sentimentalism had a great influence on the development of Russian literature: it inspired, among other things, the romanticism of Zhukovsky and the work of Pushkin.
Romanticism: ideological and artistic direction in culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment. Romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. The image of a “noble savage”, armed with “folk wisdom” and not spoiled by civilization, is in demand.
In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad and romantic drama are created. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible.
Affects were placed in the reserve of reason, passionate love was rejected as unreasonable, irrational and uncontrollable. The main purpose of marriage was to conceive and raise children. Spouses who refuted this goal were explicitly reprimanded in Moral Weeklies. However, the purpose of marriage, the mutual enhancement of personal happiness, was increasingly emphasized.
In the 19th century, the idea of love developed further into the concept of "tender love". This form of love also remained tied to the precept of virtue, but reason now played a less dominant role: “Love takes no place in considering, weighing and comparing considerations, but arises from a sense of attraction.” It was assumed that in the sense of loving one's partner one's moral qualities were spontaneously recognized. Thus, the concept of affectionate love remained under the dictates of virtue, and here the partner had to meet certain moral qualities.
The founder of Russian romanticism is Zhukovsky: Russian poet, translator, critic. At first he wrote sentimentalism because of his close acquaintance with Karamzin, but in 1808, together with the ballad “Lyudmila” (an adaptation of “Lenora” by G. A. Burger), which came from his pen, Russian literature included a new, completely special content - romanticism. Participated in the militia. In 1816 he became a reader under the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. In 1817, he became the Russian language teacher of Princess Charlotte, the future Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, and in the fall of 1826 he was appointed to the position of “mentor” of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander II.
Passionate love was further rejected: it was considered an expression of pride and pure instinct. Ses sees this view as an expression of the fundamental dilemma of the new idea of loving marriage: marriage must be the result of a previous love affair, but only in marriage can sexuality find its rightful place, since the woman had to be left untouched. To overcome this problem, love was desesualized, describing it as a form of friendship, separating love and sexuality. After marriage, sexuality was permitted for the purpose of producing children.
The poetry of Mikhail Yuryevich can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism Lermontov. In the views of the progressive part of Russian society in the 30s. XIX century traits appeared romantic worldview, caused by dissatisfaction with modern reality. This worldview was characterized by deep disappointment, rejection of reality, and disbelief in the possibility of progress. On the other hand, the romantics were characterized by a desire for lofty ideals, a desire for a complete resolution of the contradictions of existence and an understanding of the impossibility of this (the gap between ideal and reality).
Lermontov's work most fully reflects the romantic worldview that was formed in the Nicholas era. In his poetry, the main conflict of romanticism - the contradiction between ideal and reality - reaches extreme tension, which significantly distinguishes him from the romantic poets of the early 19th century. The main object of Lermontov's lyrics is the inner world of man - deep and contradictory. our time". The key theme in Lermontov’s work is the theme of the tragic loneliness of the individual in a hostile and unjust world. The entire wealth of poetic images, motifs, artistic means, all the diversity of thoughts, experiences, and feelings of the lyrical hero are subordinated to the disclosure of this theme.
Such love may lead to marriage, but it does not have to. Woman was often enthusiastically transformed as man's Redeemer, but was still considered subordinate to man. However, this submission to man was not related to coercion, but was based on the character of the woman.
The wife is not subject, so the husband has the right to force her, she submits to her own desire and morality, prompting the desire to submit. According to Zanse, women's redeeming function in the private sphere meant their complete social negation.
However, over the course of the century, Hegel's marriage-institutionalism, which saw marriage as having entered into the order of society and strongly opposed a concept of marriage that neglected everything institutional, became increasingly more prominent than the concept of romantic love. However, the concept of romantic love influenced the needs of people of the time and shaped what they hoped for love and marriage.
An important motif in Lermontov’s works is, on the one hand, the feeling of the “immense powers” of the human soul, and on the other, the uselessness, futility of vigorous activity and dedication.
In his various works, themes of homeland, love, poet and poetry are visible, reflecting the features of the poet’s bright individuality and worldview.
Tyutchev: The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and overcoming of romanticism in Russia. Starting with odic works, he gradually found his own style. It was something of a fusion of Russian odic poetry of the 18th century and the tradition of European romanticism. In addition, he never wanted to see himself in the role of a professional writer and even neglected the results of his own creativity.
Along with poetry, began to develop prose. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol.
Early poetry of A.S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. His southern exile coincided with a number of historical events and in Pushkin there was a ripening hope for the achievability of the ideals of freedom and liberty (the heroics of modern history of the 1820s were reflected in Pushkin’s lyrics), but after several years of cold reception for his works, he soon realized that the world was ruled not opinions, but powers. In the works of Pushkin of the romantic period, the conviction matured that there are objective laws in the world that a person cannot shake, no matter how brave and beautiful his thoughts are. This determined the tragic tone of Pushkin’s muse.
Gradually, in the 30s, the first “signs” of realism appeared in Pushkin.
Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
Realism in art, 1) the truth of life, embodied by specific means of art. 2) A historically specific form of artistic consciousness of modern times, the beginning of which dates back either to the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or from the Enlightenment ("Enlightenment realism"), or from the 30s. 19th century (“actually realism”). The leading principles of realism of the 19th - 20th centuries: objective display of essential aspects of life in combination with the height of the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization(i.e., specification of both national, historical, social signs, and physical, intellectual and spiritual characteristics); preference in methods of depicting “forms of life itself,” but along with the use, especially in the 20th century, of conventional forms (myth, symbol, parable, grotesque); prevailing interest to the problem of "personality and society"
Gogol was not a thinker, but he was a great artist. He himself said about the properties of his talent: “I only did well what I took from reality, from the data known to me.” It could not have been simpler or stronger to indicate the deep basis of realism that lay in his talent.
Critical realism- an artistic method and literary movement that developed in the 19th century. Its main feature is the depiction of human character in organic connection with social circumstances, along with a deep social analysis of the inner world of man.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol“Dead Souls” the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices. The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A.S. are also full of satirical images. Pushkin. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque (bizarre, comic, tragicomic) form.
The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The development of poetry subsides somewhat .
It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.
