Most often, researchers identify such models of cultural policy as:
American (USA),
Decentralized (Germany),
Arms-length model (UK and Scandinavian countries),
A model with a strong cultural administration at the central level.
Let's look briefly at each of them.
IN American model role state power very weak. Here private sponsors, foundations and individuals take part in financing. " Federal agency“The National Endowment for the Arts has limited funds (for example, the entire budget of the NFI in 1994 - $170.2 million - was significantly inferior to the amount of $189.1 million that the US Department of Defense allocated to military bands in the same year).” .
The American model is based on corporate and individual philanthropy, i.e. involves donating funds to cultural organizations without the expectation of receiving anything in return. This model is supported by a developed system of tax privileges combined with a slight state support. In addition, there is an idea that culture should be free from state influence. The main motto of philanthropy in the United States can be formulated as follows: “by supporting the arts, you help society.” The main management and control body is the board of trustees of a specific cultural organization.
Decentralization (Germany) involves budget financing, which is carried out by local and regional authorities. The center only participates in the field of culture, as additional source money. “Cultural policy, adopted and supported by law, in this case includes private funding along with state and public funding.”
The arm's length principle (UK and Scandinavian countries) applies when the state determines total amount, but does not participate in the distribution of this amount. The distribution function is performed by independent administrative bodies, which delegate the right where to distribute funds to special committees and specialists.
Such practices are intended to "keep politicians and bureaucrats at arm's length from the work of distributing funds, and to shield artists and institutions from direct political pressure or unlawful censorship."
It is worth mentioning two more models, which are variations of the indicated models. Thus, experts single out the British model separately. “The British cultural funding model in its current form is intermediate between the American and European models. In the UK, the state strives to maintain a balance between public and private funding of culture, which avoids excessive reliance on the predominant source of funding (in France and Germany - public, in the USA - private).” .
In addition, we can distinguish a model with a strong administration in the cultural sector at the central level. IN in this case The administration, in addition to its direct expenses, is also an “engine” that encourages all partners to cultural life and local communities; with respect for the programs that organizations develop.
“Support and funding are not distributed arbitrarily in the quiet of offices by officials, but on the basis of the opinions of specialized commissions, which include experts and independent specialists.”
From the above, we can highlight the “pros” and “cons” of these models of cultural policy. The “advantage” of the American model is that in this model the financing function is performed by private sponsors, foundations and individuals, because if only the state was involved in financing, then it seems to me that cultural policy in America would not be so developed. The disadvantages may be a disproportionate distribution of funds, especially for those areas of culture that are not so popular among consumers of cultural services. In this case, the state should make efforts to additionally finance these “unattractive” areas for private business.
The decentralization model states that central government only the addition of funds is involved, and financing in this model is budgetary, it is carried out by local and regional authorities. The only “advantage” of this model is that the central government distributes funds, and the “minus” is that there is no support from private individuals, as is the case in the American model.
The principle of Arm's Length is to keep politicians and bureaucrats at arm's length from the distribution of funds, and to protect artists and institutions from political pressure or illegal censorship. The “plus” here is that the state only finances the cultural sector, without participating in the distribution of funds. The distribution function is performed by administrative bodies, which transfer further distribution to special committees and groups of experts. Moreover, these groups and experts on the spot better see those “damaged places” in the cultural sphere that should be financed. The “minus” here is the same as in the decentralization model.
In a model with a strong administration in the cultural sector at the central level, the “engine” is the administration, which provides direct funding in the cultural sector. This body is a “motor” because it encourages regional and local communities to respect cultural figures. Funding and support are provided on the basis of the opinions of special commissions, in which the members are experts and independent specialists. The “plus” of this model is that the administration finances it and distribution occurs not by officials, but by a special commission. The “minus” is the same as in the previous two models.
The model of the state’s relationship to the field of culture should be its own, that is, this model should not be copied, despite the effectiveness of the model. The model of Russian cultural policy should be developed on the basis of the cultural traditions of our country, but at the same time, paying attention to what changes are taking place in the world community.
Related information.
Ecosystems are unified natural complexes that are formed by a combination of living organisms and their habitat. The science of ecology studies these formations.
The term “ecosystem” appeared in 1935. It was proposed by the English ecologist A. Tansley. A natural or natural-anthropogenic complex in which both living and indirect components are in close relationship through metabolism and the distribution of energy flow - all this is included in the concept of “ecosystem”. There are different types of ecosystems. These basic functional units of the biosphere are divided into separate groups and studies environmental science.
Classification by origin
There are various ecosystems on our planet. Ecosystem types are classified in a certain way. However, it is impossible to connect together all the diversity of these units of the biosphere. That is why there are several classifications of ecological systems. For example, they are distinguished by origin. This:
- Natural (natural) ecosystems. These include those complexes in which the circulation of substances occurs without any human intervention.
- Artificial (anthropogenic) ecosystems. They are created by man and are able to exist only with his direct support.
Natural ecosystems
Natural complexes that exist without human participation have their own internal classification. There are the following types of natural ecosystems based on energy:
Located in complete dependence from solar radiation;
Receiving energy not only from heavenly body, but also from other natural sources.
The first of these two types of ecosystems is unproductive. Nevertheless, such natural complexes are extremely important for our planet, since they exist over vast areas and influence climate formation, clean large volumes of the atmosphere, etc.
Natural complexes that receive energy from several sources are the most productive.
Artificial biosphere units
Anthropogenic ecosystems are also different. The types of ecosystems included in this group include:
Agroecosystems that appear as a result of human management agriculture;
Technoecosystems arising as a result of industrial development;
Urban ecosystems resulting from the creation of settlements.
All these are types of anthropogenic ecosystems created by direct participation person.
Diversity of natural components of the biosphere
Types and types of ecosystems natural origin are different. Moreover, ecologists distinguish them based on climatic and natural conditions their existence. Thus, there are three groups and a number of different units of the biosphere.
Main types of natural ecosystems:
Ground;
Freshwater;
Marine.
Terrestrial natural complexes
Diversity of ecosystem types ground type includes:
Arctic and alpine tundra;
Coniferous boreal forests;
Deciduous massifs temperate zone;
Savannas and tropical grasslands;
Chaparrals, which are areas with dry summers and rainy winters;
Deserts (both shrub and grassy);
Semi-evergreen tropical forests located in areas with distinct dry and wet seasons;
Tropical evergreen rain forests.
In addition to the main types of ecosystems, there are also transitional ones. These are forest-tundras, semi-deserts, etc.
Reasons for the existence of various types of natural complexes
By what principle are various natural ecosystems located on our planet? Types of ecosystems natural origin are located in one zone or another depending on the amount of precipitation and air temperature. It is known that the climate in different parts globe has significant differences. At the same time, the annual amount of precipitation is not the same. It can range from 0 to 250 or more millimeters. In this case, precipitation falls either evenly throughout all seasons, or falls mostly during a certain wet period. The average annual temperature also varies on our planet. It can range from negative values or reach thirty-eight degrees Celsius. Variable and consistent heating air masses. It may not have significant differences throughout the year, as, for example, at the equator, or it may constantly change.
Characteristics of natural complexes
The diversity of types of natural ecosystems of the terrestrial group leads to the fact that each of them has its own distinctive features. Thus, in the tundras, which are located north of the taiga, there is a very cold climate. This area is characterized by negative average annual temperatures and polar day-night cycles. Summer in these parts lasts only a few weeks. At the same time, the ground has time to thaw to a small meter depth. Precipitation in the tundra falls less than 200-300 millimeters throughout the year. Due to such climatic conditions, these lands are poor in vegetation, represented by slowly growing lichens, moss, as well as dwarf or creeping lingonberry and blueberry bushes. At times you can meet
The fauna is not rich either. It is represented by reindeer, small burrowing mammals, as well as predators such as ermine, arctic fox and weasel. The bird world is represented by the polar owl, snow bunting and plover. Insects in the tundra are mostly dipteran species. The tundra ecosystem is very vulnerable due to its poor ability to recover.
The taiga, located in northern regions America and Eurasia. This ecosystem is characterized by cold and long winters and abundant precipitation in the form of snow. The flora is represented by evergreen coniferous tracts, in which fir and spruce, pine and larch grow. Representatives of the animal world include moose and badgers, bears and squirrels, sables and wolverines, wolves and lynxes, foxes and minks. The taiga is characterized by the presence of many lakes and swamps.
The following ecosystems are represented by broad-leaved forests. Ecosystem species of this type are found in the eastern United States, in East Asia and in Western Europe. This is a seasonal climate zone, where temperatures in winter drop below zero, and between 750 and 1500 mm of precipitation falls throughout the year. The flora of such an ecosystem is represented by broad-leaved trees such as beech and oak, ash and linden. There are bushes and a thick layer of grass here. The fauna is represented by bears and moose, foxes and lynxes, squirrels and shrews. Owls and woodpeckers, blackbirds and falcons live in such an ecosystem.
Temperate steppe zones are found in Eurasia and North America. Their analogues are tussocks in New Zealand, as well as pampas in South America. The climate in these areas is seasonal. IN summer period the air heats up from moderately warm to very high values. Winter temperatures are negative. During the year, there is from 250 to 750 millimeters of precipitation. The flora of the steppes is represented mainly by turf grasses. Animals include bison and antelope, saigas and gophers, rabbits and marmots, wolves and hyenas.
Chaparrals are located in the Mediterranean, as well as in California, Georgia, Mexico and southern shores Australia. These are zones of mild temperate climate, where precipitation falls from 500 to 700 millimeters throughout the year. Vegetation here includes shrubs and trees with evergreen hard leaves, such as wild pistachio, laurel, etc.
Ecological systems such as savannas are located in the Eastern and Central Africa, South America and Australia. A significant part of them is located in South India. These are zones of hot and dry climate, where precipitation falls from 250 to 750 mm throughout the year. The vegetation is mainly grassy, with only rare deciduous trees (palms, baobabs and acacias) found here and there. The fauna is represented by zebras and antelopes, rhinoceroses and giraffes, leopards and lions, vultures, etc. There are many blood-sucking insects in these parts, such as the tsetse fly.
Deserts are found in parts of Africa, northern Mexico, etc. The climate here is dry, with rainfall less than 250 mm per year. Days in deserts are hot and nights are cold. The vegetation is represented by cacti and sparse shrubs with extensive root systems. Among the representatives of the animal world, gophers and jerboas, antelopes and wolves are common. This is a fragile ecosystem, easily destroyed by water and wind erosion.
Semi-evergreen tropical deciduous forests are found in Central America and Asia. These areas experience alternating dry and wet seasons. The average annual precipitation is from 800 to 1300 mm. Tropical forests are inhabited by a rich fauna.
Tropical rainforests are found in many parts of our planet. They are found in Central America, in the north South America, in central and western equatorial Africa, in the coastal areas of northwestern Australia, as well as on the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Warm climatic conditions in these parts there is no seasonality. Heavy rainfall exceeds the limit of 2500 mm throughout the year. This system is distinguished by a huge diversity of flora and fauna.
Existing natural complexes, as a rule, do not have any clear boundaries. Between them there must be transition zone. It not only involves the interaction of populations different types ecosystems, but also occur special types living organisms. Thus, the transition zone includes a greater diversity of fauna and flora than the surrounding areas.
Aquatic natural complexes
These biosphere units can exist in fresh water bodies and seas. The first of these include ecosystems such as:
Lentic are reservoirs, that is, standing waters;
Lotic, represented by streams, rivers, springs;
Upwelling areas where productive fishing occurs;
Straits, bays, estuaries, which are estuaries;
Deep-water reef zones.
Example of a natural complex
Ecologists distinguish a wide variety of types of natural ecosystems. Nevertheless, the existence of each of them follows the same pattern. In order to most deeply understand the interaction of all living and inanimate beings in a unit of the biosphere, consider the species All microorganisms and animals living here have a direct impact on chemical composition air and soil.
A meadow is an equilibrium system that includes various elements. Some of them, macroproducers, which are herbaceous vegetation, create the organic products of this terrestrial community. Further, the life of the natural complex is carried out due to biological food chain. Plant animals or primary consumers feed on meadow grasses and their parts. These are representatives of the fauna such as large herbivores and insects, rodents and many types of invertebrates (gopher and hare, partridge, etc.).
Primary consumers feed on secondary consumers, which include carnivorous birds and mammals (wolf, owl, hawk, fox, etc.). Next, reducers are involved in the work. It's impossible without them full description ecosystems. Species of many fungi and bacteria are these elements in the natural complex. Decomposers decompose organic products to a mineral state. If temperature conditions are favorable, then plant residues and dead animals quickly break down into simple compounds. Some of these components contain batteries that are leached and reused. The more stable part of organic residues (humus, cellulose, etc.) decomposes more slowly, feeding the plant world.
Anthropogenic ecosystems
The natural complexes discussed above are capable of existing without any human intervention. The situation is completely different in anthropogenic ecosystems. Their connections work only with the direct participation of a person. For example, an agroecosystem. The main condition for its existence is not only the use solar energy, but also the receipt of “subsidies” in the form of a kind of fuel.
In part, this system is similar to natural. Similarities with the natural complex are observed during the growth and development of plants, which occurs due to the energy of the Sun. However, farming is impossible without soil preparation and harvesting. And these processes require energy subsidies from human society.
What type of ecosystem does the city belong to? This is an anthropogenic complex in which great value has fuel energy. Its consumption compared to the flow sun rays two to three times higher. The city can be compared to deep-sea or cave ecosystems. After all, the existence of precisely these biogeocenoses largely depends on the supply of substances and energy from the outside.
Urban ecosystems arose as a result historical process called urbanization. Under his influence, the population of countries left rural areas, creating large settlements. Gradually, cities increasingly strengthened their role in the development of society. At the same time, to improve life, man himself created a complex urban system. This led to a certain separation of cities from nature and disruption of existing natural complexes. The settlement system can be called urban. However, as industry developed, things changed somewhat. What type of ecosystem does the city on whose territory the plant or factory operates belong to? Rather, it can be called industrial-urban. This complex consists of residential areas and territories in which facilities producing a variety of products are located. The city ecosystem differs from the natural one in a more abundant and, in addition, toxic flow of various wastes.
In order to improve their living environment, people create so-called green belts around their settlements. They consist of grass lawns and shrubs, trees and ponds. These small-sized natural ecosystems create organic products that do not play a special role in urban life. To survive, people need food, fuel, water and electricity from outside.
The process of urbanization has significantly changed the life of our planet. Impact of artificially created anthropogenic system V to a large extent changed nature over vast areas of the Earth. At the same time, the city influences not only those zones where the architectural and construction objects themselves are located. It affects huge territories and beyond. For example, with an increase in demand for wood products, people cut down forests.
During the functioning of a city, many different substances enter the atmosphere. They pollute the air and change climate conditions. In cities there is higher cloudiness and less sunlight, more fog and drizzle, and slightly warmer than the surrounding countryside.
Ecosystem or ecological system(from the Greek óikos - dwelling, residence and system), a natural complex (bio-inert system) formed by living organisms (biocenosis) and their habitat (inert, for example the atmosphere, or bio-inert - soil, reservoir, etc.), connected exchange of substances and energy with each other. One of the basic concepts of ecology, applicable to objects of varying complexity and size. Examples of Ecosystems - a pond with plants, fish, invertebrate animals, microorganisms living in it, bottom sediments, with its characteristic changes in temperature, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, water composition, etc., with a certain biological productivity; a forest with forest litter, soil, microorganisms, with the birds, herbivores and predatory mammals inhabiting it, with its characteristic distribution of temperature and humidity of air, light, soil water and other environmental factors, with its inherent metabolism and energy. A rotting stump in a forest, with the organisms and living conditions living on it and in it, can also be considered an Ecosystem
Basics
Ecological system (ecosystem) - a set of populations various types plants, animals and microbes interacting with each other and their environment in such a way that this totality persists indefinitely for a long time. Examples of ecological systems: meadow, forest, lake, ocean. Ecosystems exist everywhere - in water and on land, in dry and wet areas, in cold and hot areas. They look different and include different types of plants and animals. However, the “behavior” of all ecosystems also has common aspects associated with the fundamental similarity of the energy processes occurring in them. One of the fundamental rules that all ecosystems obey is Le Chatelier-Brown principle :
when an external influence takes the system out of the state stable equilibrium, this equilibrium shifts in the direction in which the effect external influence weakens.
When studying ecosystems, they analyze, first of all, the flow of energy and the circulation of substances between the corresponding biotope and biocenosis. The ecosystem approach takes into account the common organization of all communities, regardless of habitat. This confirms the similarity of the structure and functioning of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
According to V.N. Sukachev’s definition, biogeocenosis (from the Greek bios - life, ge - Earth, cenosis - society) - is a collection of homogeneous natural elements(atmosphere, rock, vegetation, fauna and the world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions) on a certain area of the Earth's surface. The contour of the biogeocenosis is established along the border of the plant community (phytocenosis).
The terms “ecological system” and “biogeocenosis” are not synonymous. An ecosystem is any collection of organisms and their habitats, including, for example, a flower pot, an anthill, an aquarium, a swamp, a manned spacecraft. U listed systems a number of features from Sukachev’s definition are missing, and first of all the “geo” element - Earth. Biocenoses are only natural formations. However, the biocenosis can be fully considered as an ecosystem. Thus, the concept of “ecosystem” is broader and fully covers the concept of “biogeocoenosis”, or “biogeocoenosis” is a special case of “ecosystem”.
The largest natural ecosystem on Earth it is the biosphere. The boundary between a large ecosystem and the biosphere is as arbitrary as between many concepts in ecology. The difference mainly lies in such characteristics of the biosphere as globality and greater conditional closedness (with thermodynamic openness). Other ecosystems of the Earth are practically not closed in material terms.
Ecosystem structure
Any ecosystem can first of all be divided into a set of organisms and a set of non-living (abiotic) factors of the natural environment.
In turn, the ecotope consists of climate in all its diverse manifestations and the geological environment (soils and soils), called edaphotope. The edaphotope is where the biocenosis draws its means for subsistence and where it releases waste products.
The structure of the living part of the biogeocenosis is determined by trophoenergetic connections and relationships, according to which three main functional components are distinguished:
complex autotrophic producer organisms that provide organic matter and, therefore, energy to other organisms (phytocenosis (green plants), as well as photo- and chemosynthetic bacteria); complex heterotrophic consumer organisms living off nutrients, created by producers; firstly, this is a zoocenosis (animals), secondly, chlorophyll-free plants; complex decomposer organisms that decompose organic compounds to a mineral state (microbiocenosis, as well as fungi and other organisms that feed on dead organic matter).
As a visual model of the ecological system and its structure, Yu. Odum proposed using a spacecraft for long journeys, for example, to planets solar system or even further. Leaving the Earth, people must have a clearly limited closed system that would provide all their vital needs, and used solar radiation as energy. Such a spacecraft must be equipped with systems for the complete regeneration of all vital abiotic components (factors), allowing their repeated use. It must carry out balanced processes of production, consumption and decomposition by organisms or their artificial substitutes. In essence, such an autonomous ship will be a micro-ecosystem that includes humans.
Examples
A plot of forest, a pond, a rotting stump, an individual inhabited by microbes or helminths are ecosystems. The concept of an ecosystem is thus applicable to any collection of living organisms and their habitats.
Literature
- N.I. Nikolaikin, N.E. Nikolaikina, O.P. Melekhova Ecology. - 5th. - Moscow: Bustard, 2006. - 640 p.
See also
Links
- Ecosystem - Ecology News
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
See what “Ecological system” is in other dictionaries:
A single natural or naturally anthropogenic complex formed by living organisms and their habitat, in which living and inert environmental components are causally interconnected investigative connections, metabolism and distribution... ... Financial Dictionary
ECOLOGICAL, oh, oh. Dictionary Ozhegova. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
A single complex natural complex formed by living organisms and their habitat (atmosphere, soil, water bodies, etc.), in which living and nonliving components are interconnected by the exchange of matter and energy, together forming a stable integrity... Dictionary of emergency situations
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM- ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM, ecosystem, natural complex formed by living organisms and their habitat, interconnected by metabolism and energy. One of the main concepts of ecology, applicable to objects of varying complexity and size.... ... Demographic Encyclopedic Dictionary
A single natural or naturally anthropogenic complex formed by living organisms and their habitat, in which living and inert ecological components are interconnected by cause-and-effect relationships, metabolism and distribution... ... Dictionary of business terms
ecological system- ecosystem - [A.S. Goldberg. English-Russian energy dictionary. 2006] Topics energy in general Synonyms ecosystem EN ecological system ... Technical Translator's Guide
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM- ECOSYSTEM… Legal encyclopedia
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM - 1. Functional system, which includes communities of living organisms and their habitat, united into a single whole by various interdependencies and cause-and-effect relationships. 2. See biogeocenosis. 3. A set of biotic... ... Dictionary of botanical terms
Remember:
The role of plants, animals, fungi, bacteria in the cycle of substances.
Answer. Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria are closely related to each other due, first of all, to food connections. Plants, being autotrophs, produce organic matter, animals and fungi consume it, bacteria and individual species fungi destroy and mineralize organic residues, releasing into the atmosphere carbon dioxide, which in turn will be consumed by plants, just like inorganic substances. This is how the transfer of matter and energy occurs in the biogeocenosis, and the circulation of substances occurs.
Questions after §41
What is an ecosystem called?
Answer. For ease of review life processes In the biosphere, the concept of “ecological system” (ecosystem) was introduced. An ecosystem is a functional unity of organisms and the environment. It is a collection of different species of plants, animals and microbes interacting with each other and with environment– a biotope containing matter and energy necessary for life.
This entire set can persist indefinitely. An ecosystem can be any community of living beings and its habitat, united into a single whole. The ecological components of the system are interconnected and interdependent. Violation of the functions of one of the components will disrupt the stability of the entire ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a necessary form of existence for life. Any organism can develop only in an ecosystem, and not in isolation.
Thus, an ecosystem is any collection of interacting living organisms and environmental conditions. The term “ecosystem,” as already noted, was first introduced by the English ecologist A. Tansley in 1935. Ecosystems are, for example: a forest area, a factory area, a farm, a cabin spaceship or even the entire globe.
What groups of organisms make up any ecosystem?
Answer. An ecosystem includes living organisms (their totality can be called a biocenosis), non-living (abiotic) factors - atmosphere, water, nutrients, light.
All living organisms according to the method of nutrition are divided into two groups - autotrophs (from the Greek words autos - self and tropho - nutrition) and heterotrophs (from Greek word heteros – different).
Autotrophs use inorganic carbon and synthesize limited substances from inorganic ones; these are the producers of the ecosystem
Heterotrophs use carbon from organic substances that are synthesized by producers, and together with these substances they obtain energy. Heterotrophs are consumers (from Latin word consumo - consume), consuming organic matter, and decomposers, decomposing it into simple compounds.
Decomposers are organisms that, in their position in the ecosystem, are close to detritivores, since they also feed on dead organic matter. However, decomposers - bacteria and fungi - break down organic matter into mineral compounds, which are returned to the soil solution and used again by plants.
Organic substances created by autotrophs serve as food and a source of energy for heterotrophs: consumers - phytophages eat plants, first-order predators - phytophages, second-order predators - second-order predators, etc. This sequence of organisms is called a food chain, its links are located at different trophic levels(represent different trophic groups).
How does an ecosystem differ from a biogeocenosis?
Answer. The composition of an ecosystem includes living organisms (their totality is called biogeocenosis or biota of the ecosystem), and non-living (abiotic) factors - atmosphere, water, nutrients, light and dead organic matter - detritus.
The term “biogeocenosis” was proposed by the Russian scientist V.N. Sukachev. This term refers to the collection of plants, animals, microorganisms, soil and atmosphere on a homogeneous land area. It should be noted that they species composition and quantity are associated, firstly, with the action of limiting factors, primarily climatic, which determine which species are best adapted to exist in certain conditions, and secondly, with the action of the principle of ecological-geographical maximum of species. According to this principle, for the normal functioning of any ecosystem, there must be as many species in it as necessary to maximize the use of incoming energy and ensure the circulation of substances.
First of all, any biogeocenosis is distinguished only on land. At sea, in the ocean and in general aquatic environment biogeocenoses are not distinguished. Biogeocenosis has specific boundaries. They are determined by the boundaries of the plant community - phytocenosis. Figuratively speaking, biogeocenosis exists only within the framework of phytocenosis. Where there is no phytocenosis, there is no biogeocenosis. The concepts of “ecosystem” and “biogeocenosis” are identical only for such natural formations like a forest, meadow, swamp, field. Forest biogeocenosis = forest ecosystem; meadow biogeocenosis = meadow ecosystem, etc. For natural formations that are smaller or larger in volume than a phytocenosis, or where a phytocenosis cannot be distinguished, only the concept of “ecosystem” is used. For example, a hummock in a swamp is an ecosystem, but not a biogeocenosis. A flowing stream is an ecosystem, but not a biogeocenosis. Likewise, the only ecosystems are the sea, tundra, tropical rainforest, etc. In the tundra, tropical forest It is possible to distinguish not just one phytocenosis, but many. This is a set of phytocenoses representing a larger formation than a biogeocenosis.
An ecosystem can be spatially both smaller and larger than a biogeocenosis. Thus, an ecosystem is a more general formation, without rank.
Biogeocenosis is limited by the boundaries of the plant community - phytocenosis and denotes a specific natural object occupied certain space on land and separated by spatial boundaries from similar objects.
Give examples of natural and artificial ecosystems, aquatic and terrestrial, small and large.
Answer. Ecosystems are very diverse. Natural ecosystems: a drop of water with microorganisms, a puddle, a swamp, a moss hummock, an old stump, natural areas (tundra, taiga, steppe), biogeocenoses, biocenoses, biosphere.
Artificial ecosystems: space station, construction for biological treatment water, reservoir, aquarium, wheat field, apple orchard.
A necessary condition for the existence of an ecosystem is a constant flow of energy from outside (an open biosystem). There is a flow of energy and circulation of substances in it.
Terrestrial biomes: tundra; coniferous forests; temperate deciduous forest; savannah. Freshwater ecosystems: lakes, ponds, streams. Marine ecosystems: ocean; coastal waters.
Large ecosystems: biosphere, biogeocenosis, biomes. Small ecosystems: pond, vegetable garden, stakes in the steppe.
