You are holding in your hands one of the new generation textbooks on biology for higher education students educational institutions students studying in natural sciences and specialties. The textbook was written by a well-known specialist in the field of biology and went through a difficult and long process of competitive selection at the All-Russian competition of new generation textbooks in general fundamental natural science disciplines. This competition was initiated. State Committee for Higher Education (hereinafter referred to as the Ministry of Education of Russia) for the first time in the history of Russian higher education in connection with reforming the structure and content of programs higher education and was held in 1995-1998 on the basis of the Russian University of Friendship and Peoples.

More than three hundred and fifty teams of authors took part in the competition in eleven nominations, whose developments most closely corresponded to both the new curricula and state educational standards for each discipline.

The competition committee expresses the hope that this textbook will contribute to the further improvement of Russian higher professional education, and wishes all readers, students and teachers, great creative success.

First Deputy Minister

general and professional education in Russia,

academician Russian Academy, education,

chairman of the competition commission

Professor V.D. SHADRIKOV

DEDICATED

IN MEMORY OF MOTHER

PEKHOVYA ANNA ILYINICHNA.

PARTIZANS

THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR.

WHO GAVE YOUR LIFE FOR OUR SOVIET MOTHERLAND

Russian Federation as a textbook

for students of higher educational institutions,

natural science students

specialties and directions

2000

P31 Biology with basics of ecology. Series “Textbooks for universities. Special literature" - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Lan", 2000. - 672s.

ISBN 5-8114-0219-8

The textbook covers the main sections modern biology with the basics of ecology. It consists of six sections. Section I provides information about biodiversity, section II about the essence of life, the properties and organization of living things, the structure and properties of cells, the growth and individual development of organisms, in section III - about heredity and variability of organisms, about genetic material, about the action of genes, and about human genetics, in section IV - about evolution organic world, including the origin of man, in section V - on the fundamentals of ecology, including human ecology, in section VI - on genetic engineering, biotechnology, and their environmental problems, and also about methodological problems biology and ecology. In the conclusion to the textbook, brief generalizations of the considered modern data of biology and ecology are given.

The textbook is intended for students of natural sciences, agriculture, physical education and other areas of undergraduate study. It is also useful for medical students as well as veterinary medicine students.

Drawings - 231. Tables - 45.

Reviewers:

prof. V. A. Golichenkov, prof. Yu. L. Guzhov

Cover design by S. L. Shapiro, A. A. Oleksenko

Play an entire book or any part of it

prohibited without written permission from the publisher.

Any attempts to violate the law will be

be prosecuted.

©Lan Publishing House, 2000

©A. P. Pekhov, 2000

©Lan Publishing House,

decoration, 2000

FROM THE AUTHOR

But since the methods of physics and chemistry entered biology, it began to be called new biology, or physicochemical, i.e., molecular biology. last decades Truly revolutionary changes have occurred in this science, thanks to which it has moved to the forefront of natural science, and has begun to actively promote and, in part, set the direction for scientific and technological progress, which is moving forward by leaps and bounds.

Modern data about living things are, first of all, of enormous cognitive significance, because they make an outstanding contribution to the creation of a scientific picture of the world. However, continuously carrying out the cognitive function, biology, through genetic engineering, was rapidly involved in material production, has become one of the productive forces. On the other hand, one of biological sciences, namely, ecology has gone beyond biology and has become interdisciplinary science. This happened because scientists have made enormous efforts (and continue to do so) to make society as a whole deeply aware of the fact that human activities in the environment entail not only positive, but also negative consequences; the latter can lead to a catastrophe, both local (in a single territory) and global, worldwide. And in our time it is impossible to study biology without paying attention to ecology and vice versa. Therefore, this textbook is a textbook on biology with the basics of ecology. We can say that biology and ecology are a modern complex of sciences about living things, about the origin, growth, development, heredity and variability of organisms, about the relationships of organisms with each other and with the environment, about the results of human activity in the environment and the impact of factors generated by this activity , on the human body, animals and plants. Consequently, the task of students who will use this textbook is to master the basic data of modern biology and ecology, understand their fundamental significance and use the acquired knowledge in practical work.

The textbook is written based on sample program in the discipline "Biology with fundamentals of ecology" and is intended for natural science, agricultural, physical education and some technical areas bachelor's degree However, the author would like to note several very important points. One of them boils down to the fact that, guided by this program, we still sought to reflect in the textbook our own vision of biology, its foundations and development trends, which took shape as a result long period scientific and teaching activities in this area and developed under the beneficial influence direct communication in certain years with luminaries national science(such as N. P. Dubinin, A. A. Baev, my teacher N. N. Zhukov-Verezhnikov, A. A. Imshenetsky, V. M. Klanov, Yu. A. Ovchinnikov, M. A. Peshkov , V.D. Timakov, etc.). It is impossible not to note the role of my foreign teachers G. Pontecorvo and W. Hayes (Great Britain), under whose guidance the author studied genetics and a number of problems general biology, as well as the benefits of communication with other outstanding foreign scientists (R. Cartis, D. Clark R. Klaus, USA; S. Auerbach, N. Datta and M. Richmond, Great Britain; T. Mitsuhashi, Japan).

The textbook is intended for students of various specialties, and, taking this into account, the author considered it necessary to present more broadly not only environmental issues, but also the possibilities, directions and achievements of genetic engineering, which made it possible to obtain data that are a criterion for the value of our ideas about living matter, and, what is not less important, raised to new level biotechnology.

Finally one more important point, which guided the author, is due to the fact that in the light of the extremely rapid and continuous progress of biological sciences, the effectiveness teaching the course presented in this textbook depends entirely not only on the novelty and relevance of the materials used, but also on the level of the methodology of their teaching. For this reason, the author sought to prepare a textbook that would be rich in the latest information and that would remain useful to students for as long as possible.

So that students can become more familiar with the problems that interest them, a list is provided at the end of each chapter. additional literature, where, besides domestic sources, also included the latest editions in English. This language plays a leading role in the communication of scientists different countries, and without familiarizing yourself with the works of foreign specialists, it is very difficult to get a complete picture of the current state of science.

Finally, no matter what direction biology, and with it ecology, develops, scientific discoveries are always used in the name of man and for the benefit of man. For this fundamental reason, we have strived in this textbook to be as close as possible to man, to his biology and health.

Since the time of G. Hegel (1770-1831), it has been known that the quality of all things and phenomena is determined by measure. While constantly thinking about this, we also took into account the extent to which this textbook will be accessible to those who may find it useful. We hope that in general we were able to present such complex material V acceptable form. Our experience in teaching biology in Russian University friendship of peoples, as well as the experience of lecturing on biology in a number of foreign universities, in particular, at the universities of Alabama and Arizona (USA), at the University of Khartoum (Sudan) and the University of Dhaka (Bangladesh), where we had the opportunity to work for some time. It was the materials of the lectures given there that largely formed the basis of this textbook.

As always, I thank my colleagues (especially Prof. V.P. Shchipkova) for helping me find the time to write this textbook. I am also very grateful to the experts who reviewed the textbook in manuscript and provided comments that were extremely helpful.

Regardless of the students' specialty, curriculum The course “Biology with Fundamentals of Ecology” should be presented with lectures and laboratory exercises. At the same time, general basic questions should be discussed in lectures, while an in-depth study of these questions and particular patterns should be carried out at laboratory classes(by setting up appropriate experiments) or in seminar classes during discussion. It is advisable that the study of this course be coordinated in time with the study of physics and chemistry courses, since many modern biological concepts developed on the basis of ideas, methods and. data from these sciences.

In any university for any scientific discipline a significant part of the time in preparing students is devoted to their independent work, the main form of which is reading a textbook and additional literature, its analysis, as well as self-control (searching for answers to questions that arise in the process of self-study, lectures, laboratory and seminar classes).

* * *

The textbook consists of 5 sections that reflect the main problems of biology and ecology, and materials on ecology are presented taking into account the fact that ecology is, first of all, a biological science, which in our time has become an interdisciplinary science. In turn, each section consists of several chapters, which are divided into paragraphs. As a rule, each chapter presents data on one problem.

It is imperative that students master the definitions of biological concepts very well. In the text of the textbook, as new terminology is introduced, definitions of certain phenomena are given. However, the Appendix includes a dictionary of the most important biological terms that must be mastered by students “finally” and irrevocably." It is very useful to know how biological concepts developed over time. Therefore, the Appendix contains a list of the most important ones. important dates in the development of biology and gives the names of scientists who, with their discoveries, ensured this development.

Special attention is given to an in-depth study of branches of biology, understanding the prospects for their further development. For this reason, at the end of each chapter there is bibliography, recommended for additional reading. As mentioned above, the list of books includes not only domestic educational and scientific publications, but also the works of scientists (the most significant monographs and fundamental review articles) published abroad in English. They will be useful not only to students, especially in seminar classes and in scientific circles, but also to teachers in explaining to students the future prospects of biological knowledge.

Questions necessary for self-control are given at the end of each chapter. These questions are “author’s” and are formulated so that they most fully reflect the textbook materials and correspond curriculum(as it appears to the author). If the student is able to answer them, this means that he has mastered the material in the chapter. But students, as well as their teachers, can pose their own questions.

Also at the end of each chapter, among the questions for self-control, there are tasks that have a similar functional meaning. But successful problem solving is especially valuable in the sense that it allows one to practically use the acquired fundamental data and get closer to modeling the processes being studied.

To make it easier to work with the textbook, the Appendix also includes subject and name (author) indexes. The subject index contains all the main terms used in the textbook; the author's index contains the names of scientists appearing in the text.

Finally, the Appendix provides a list of units of measurement used in biological research, as well as the names of the most important domestic and foreign scientific journals and others periodicals, which publishes experimental and review articles on biology and ecology.

Alexander PEKHOV

Professor,

Doctor of Biological Sciences,

Honored Scientist

Russian Federation,

Academician

International Academy Sciences

High School Russian University.

Friendship of Peoples

INTRODUCTION

"I'll tell you frankly,

how was it,

without adding anything of my own,

which costs the historian a lot of work.”

F.M.VOLTER. 1757

Biology (from Greek. bios - life, logos -science) -science of life, about general patterns existence and development of living beings. The subject of its study is living organisms, their structure, functions, development, relationships with the environment and origin. Like physics and chemistry, it belongs to the natural sciences, the subject of study of which is nature.

Biology is one of the oldest natural sciences, although the term “biology” to denote it was first proposed only in 1797. German professor of anatomy Theodor Roose (1771-1803), after which this term was used in 1800. professor University of Dorpat(now Tartu) K. Burdakh (1776-1847), and in 1802. J.-B. Lamarck (1744-1829) and L. Treviranus (1779-1864).

Biology is a natural science. Like other sciences, it arose and has always developed in connection with man’s desire to understand the world around him, as well as in connection with the material conditions of society, the development of social production, medicine, and the practical needs of people.

Stages of development of biology. Man began to collect the very first information about living beings, probably from the time when he realized his difference from the world around him. Already in literary monuments Egyptians, Babylonians, Indians and others contain information about the structure of many plants and animals, and the application of this knowledge in medicine and agriculture. In the 14th century BC e. many cuneiform tablets created in Mesopotamia contained information about animals and plants, about the systematization of animals by dividing them into carnivores and herbivores, and plants into trees, vegetables, medicinal herbs, etc. In medical writings created in VI - I centuries BC e. in India, contains ideas about heredity as the reason for the similarity of parents and children, and in the monuments “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana” quite a lot is given detailed description a number of features of the life of many animals and plants.

During slave system Ionian, Athenian, Alexandrian and Roman schools emerged in the study of animals and plants.

The Ionian school originated in Ionia ( VII - IV centuries BC e.). Not believing in the supernatural origin of life, the philosophers of this school recognized the causality of phenomena, the movement of life along a certain path, and the accessibility to study of “natural law,” which, according to them, governs the world. In particular, Alcmaeon (late 6th-early 5th centuries BC) described the optic nerve and the development of the chick embryo, recognized the brain as the center of sensations and thinking, and Hippocrates (460-377 BC) gave the first relatively detailed description structure of humans and animals, pointed out the role of environment and heredity in the occurrence of diseases.

The Athenian school developed in Athens. The most outstanding representative of this school, Aristotle (384-322 BC), created four biological treatises, which contained comprehensive information about animals. Aristotle divided the world around us into four kingdoms (the inanimate world of earth, water and air, the plant world, the animal world and the human world), between which a sequence was established. Later this sequence turned into the “staircase of creatures” (XVIII century). Aristotle probably belonged to the very first classification of animals, which he classified into four-legged, flying, feathered and fish. He grouped cetaceans with land animals, but not with fish, which he classified into bony and cartilaginous.

Aristotle knew the basic characteristics of mammals. He gave a description of the external and internal human organs, sexual differences in animals, methods of reproduction and lifestyle of animals, origin of sex, inheritance individual signs, deformities, multiple births, etc. Aristotle is considered the founder of zoology. Another representative of this school, Teofrastus (372-287 BC), left information about the structure and reproduction of many plants, the differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons, and introduced the terms fruit, pericarp, core. He is considered the founder of botany.

The Alexandrian school entered the history of biology thanks to scientists who were mainly engaged in the study of anatomy. Herophilus (the flowering of creativity in 300 BC) left information on the comparative anatomy of humans and animals, for the first time pointed out the differences between arteries and veins, and Erasistratus (250 BC) described the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum, and the convolutions of the brain.

The Roman school did not provide independent developments in the study of living organisms, limiting itself to collecting information obtained by the Greeks. Guy Pliny the Elder (23-79) created the encyclopedia " Natural history"from 37 volumes, which also contained information about animals and plants. Dioscorides (1st century AD) left a description of 600 plant species, paying attention to their healing properties. Claudius Galen (130-200) extensively performed autopsies on mammals (cattle and small cattle, pigs, dogs, bears, etc.), and was the first to give a comparative anatomical description of humans and monkeys. He was the last great biologist of antiquity, who had an exceptionally great influence on further development anatomy and physiology.

In the Middle Ages, the dominant ideology was religion. However scientific knowledge somehow they continued to develop. We can say that we received almost no new knowledge. But biological knowledge based on the descriptions of Aristotle, Pliny, and Galen was supported. In particular, the knowledge acquired by the Greeks was reflected in the encyclopedia of Albertus Magnus (1206-1280).

In Rus', information about animals and plants was summarized in that ancient work known as “The Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” (XI century).

The outstanding scientist and thinker of the Middle Ages, Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037), known in Europe under the name of Avicenna, developed views on the eternity and uncreated nature of the world, and recognized causal patterns in nature. During this period, biology had not yet emerged as an independent science, had not yet separated from distorted religious and philosophical views on the world around us.

According to historians of science, the beginnings of biology, like all natural sciences, are associated with the Renaissance. In this era there is a crash feudal society, the dictatorship of the church is being destroyed. We can say that natural science begins to develop more rapidly from the second half of the 15th century. Since that time, successes in natural science have followed one after another. For example, outstanding figure During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) at that time discovered the homology of organs, characterized many plants, described the behavior of birds in flight, discovered the thyroid gland, described the way bones are connected by joints, the activity of the heart and visual function: eyes, noted the similarity of human and animal bones, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) created the anatomical work “Seven Books on the Structure human body", who laid the foundations of scientific anatomy, V. Harvey (1578-1657) discovered blood circulation, and D. Borelli (1608-1679) described the mechanisms of animal movement, which laid the foundation scientific basis physiology. Since that time, anatomy and physiology have developed together for many decades, after which they divided into independent sciences, within which narrower sciences arose (animal anatomy, human anatomy, animal physiology, etc.).

The extremely rapid accumulation of scientific data about living organisms led to differentiation biological knowledge, to the division of biology into separate sciences according to objects and tasks of study. IN XVI - XVII centuries Botany began to develop rapidly. With the invention of the microscope (early 17th century), microscopic anatomy of plants arose within botany, and the foundations of plant physiology were laid. Since the 16th century Zoology also began to develop rapidly.

Great influence The development of zoology was subsequently influenced by the system of animal classification created by C. Linnaeus (1707-1778). Having introduced four-member taxonomic divisions (class-order-genus-species), C. Linnaeus classified animals into six classes (mammals, birds, amphibians, fish , insects, worms).

Significant impact on biology XVII - XVIII centuries was also supported by the German scientist G. Leibniz (1646-1716) and the Swiss scientist S. Bonna, who developed the doctrine of the “ladder of beings,” the basic principles of which were borrowed from the views of the ancient world.

In the XVIII - XIX centuries The foundations of embryology were laid through the works of K. F. Wolf, K. M. Baer and others. Since then, embryology has developed as a independent science. In 1839 T. Schwann (1804-1881) and M. Schleiden (1810-1882) formulated the cell theory, which was the most important generalization of knowledge about the cell that became known by the end of the first third of the 19th century.

In 1859 Charles Darwin (1809-1882) publishes “The Origin of Species.” This work formulated the theory of evolution.

In 1865 The work of G. Mendel (1822-1884) “Experiment on plant hybrids” was published, in which the existence of genes was substantiated and patterns were formulated, which are currently called the laws of heredity. After the rediscovery of these laws in the 20th century. genetics is established as an independent science.

Back in the first half of the 19th century. ideas arose about the use of physics and chemistry to study the phenomena of life (G. Devi, Yu. Liebig). The implementation of this idea led to the fact that in the middle of the 19th century. physiology became isolated from anatomy, and the physico-chemical direction took over in it leading place. At the turn XIX - XX centuries modern biological chemistry. In the first half of the 20th century. Biological physics is established as an independent science.

The most important milestone in the development of biology in the 20th century. began in the 40s and 50s, when ideas and methods of physics and chemistry poured into biology, and microorganisms began to be used as objects. In 1944 The genetic role of DNA was discovered in 1953. its structure was clarified, and in 1961. was deciphered genetic code. With the discovery of the genetic role of DNA and the mechanisms of protein synthesis, genetics and biochemistry were isolated molecular biology And molecular genetics, which collectively are often called physical and chemical biology. The main subject of study of molecular biology and genetics was the structure and functions of nucleic acids and proteins. The emergence of these sciences meant a giant step in the study of life phenomena on molecular level living matter.

April 12, 1961 For the first time in history, man went into space. This first cosmonaut was a citizen of the USSR, Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin. In our country this day became Cosmonautics Day, and in the world it became World Aviation and Cosmonautics Day. But we can say that this day is also the day of space biology, the birthplace of which is rightfully our country.

In our time, biology is characterized by an exceptionally wide range of developed fundamental problems, starting with elementary research cellular structures and reactions occurring in cells, ending with the knowledge of processes unfolding and developing at the global (biosphere) level. In a relatively short historical period, fundamentally new research methods, the molecular basis of the structure and activity of cells was revealed, the genetic role was established nucleic acids, the genetic code was deciphered and a theory was formulated genetic information, the sequences of the nitrogen bases of many genes were determined (sequenced), new justifications for the theory of evolution appeared, and new biological sciences emerged. The newest revolutionary stage in the development of biology is the creation of the methodology of genetic engineering, which has opened up fundamentally new opportunities for penetrating into the depths of biological processes with the aim of further characterizing living matter and creating a scientific picture of the world. Genetic engineering It also raised biotechnology to a new level, made it more efficient and attracted significant public attention to it, forcing people to think more carefully about their existence. The advent of genetic engineering has led to the creation of a number of completely new social and ethical problems natural sciences.

Classification of biological sciences. Biology is a complex science, which has become so in our time as a result of differentiation and integration of different biological sciences. The oldest biological sciences are zoology and botany, which study animals and plants, respectively.

Individual biological sciences have a complex significance. For example, integrated science became genetics, the subject of study of which is heredity and variability of organisms.

Nowadays, ecology has become a complex science, studying the relationships of organisms with each other and with the environment.

Both in zoology and botany, systematics, anatomy, physiology, cytology, histology, embryology and other disciplines have long been distinguished as independent sciences. Microbiology was divided into bacteriology, virology and immunology. Simultaneously with differentiation, there was a process of emergence and formation of new sciences, which were divided into narrower sciences. For example, genetics, having emerged as an independent science, was divided into general and molecular, into the genetics of plants, animals and microorganisms. At the same time, the genetics of sex, behavioral genetics, population genetics, evolutionary genetics, etc. arose in the depths of physiology. Comparative and evolutionary physiology, endocrinology and other physiological sciences arose. IN recent years there is a trend in design narrow sciences, named after the problem (object) of research. Such sciences are enzymology, membranology, karyology, plasmidology and others.

As a result of the integration of sciences, biochemistry, biophysics, radiobiology, cytogenetics, space biology and other sciences emerged.

Leading position In the modern complex of biological sciences, physicochemical biology is occupied, the latest data of which make a significant contribution to the understanding of the scientific picture of the world, to the further justification of the material unity of the world. Continuing to reflect the living world and man as part of this world, deeply developing cognitive ideas and improving in quality theoretical basis medicine and agriculture, biology has acquired exclusively great value V scientific and technological progress, became a productive force.

Research methods. As is known, new theoretical concepts and the advancement of knowledge in any science have always been and are determined by the creation and use of new research methods. Biology is no exception to this rule.

The main methods used in biological sciences are descriptive, comparative, historical and experimental.

The descriptive method is the oldest method and is based on the observation of organisms. It consists of collecting factual material and describing it. Having arisen at the very beginning of biological knowledge, this method for a long time remained unique in the study of the structure and properties of cells, tissues and organisms. Therefore, old (traditional) biology was associated with a simple reflection of the living world in the form of a description of plants and animals, i.e. it was essentially a descriptive science. The use of this method made it possible to lay the foundations of biological knowledge. It is enough to recall how successful this method turned out to be in taxonomy and in creating the science of taxonomy of organisms.

The descriptive method is widely used in our time, especially in zoology, botany, cytology, ecology and other sciences. Studying cells using light or electron microscope and the description of the microscopic or submicroscopic features revealed in their structure is one of the current examples of the use of the descriptive method.

Comparative method consists in comparing the studied organisms, their structures and functions with each other in order to identify similarities and differences. This method was established in biology in the 18th century. and turned out to be very fruitful in solving many biggest problems. Using this method and in combination with descriptive method information was obtained that allowed in the 18th century. Lay the foundations of the taxonomy of plants and animals (C. Linnaeus), as well as formulate the cell theory (M. Schleiden and T. Schwann) and the doctrine of the main types of development (K. Baer). The method was widely used in the 19th century. in substantiating the theory of evolution, as well as in restructuring a number of biological sciences on the basis of this theory. However, the use of this method was not accompanied by biology moving beyond the boundaries of descriptive science.

The comparative method is widely used in various biological sciences in our time.

Comparison acquires special value when it is impossible to define a concept. For example, an electron microscope often produces images whose true content is unknown in advance. Only comparing them with light microscopic images allows one to obtain the desired data.

In the second half of the 19th century. thanks to Charles Darwin, biology includes the historical method, which made it possible to put on a scientific basis the study of the patterns of the appearance and development of organisms, the formation of the structure and functions of organisms in time and space. With the introduction of this method, significant changes immediately occurred in biology. qualitative changes. The historical method transformed biology from a purely descriptive science into a science that explains how diverse living systems arose and how they function. Thanks to this method, biology rose several steps higher at once. At present, the historical method has essentially gone beyond the scope of the research method. It has become a universal approach to the study of life phenomena in all biological sciences.

The experimental method consists of actively studying a particular phenomenon through experiment. It should be noted that the question of the experimental study of nature as a new principle natural science knowledge, i.e., the question of experiment, as one of the foundations in the knowledge of nature, was raised back in the 17th century. English philosopher F. Bacon (1561-1626). His introduction to biology is associated with the works of W. Harvey in the 17th century. on the study of blood circulation. However, the experimental method widely entered biology only at the beginning of the 19th century, and through physiology, in which they began to use large number instrumental techniques that made it possible to register and quantitatively characterize the association of functions with structure. Thanks to the works of F. Magendie (1783-1855), G. Helmholtz (1821-1894), I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905), as well as the classics of experiment K. Vernard (1813-1878) and I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936), physiology was probably the first of the biological sciences to become an experimental science.

Another direction in which the experimental method entered biology was the study of heredity and variability of organisms. Here the main merit belongs to G. Mendel, who, unlike his predecessors, used experiment not only to obtain data about the phenomena being studied, but also to test the hypothesis formulated on the basis of the data obtained. G. Mendel’s work was a classic example of the methodology of experimental science.

In justification experimental method important had work carried out in microbiology by L. Pasteur (1822-1895), who first introduced an experiment to study fermentation and refute the theory of spontaneous generation of microorganisms, and then to develop vaccination against infectious diseases. In the second half of the 19th century. Following L. Pasteur, significant contributions to the development and substantiation of the experimental method in microbiology were made by R. Koch (1843-1910), D. Lister (1827-1912), I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916), D. I. Ivanovsky (1864-1920), S. N. Vinogradsky (1856-1953), M. Beyerinck (1851-1931) and others. In the 19th century biology has also been enriched by the creation methodological foundations modeling, which is highest form experiment. The methods of infecting laboratory animals with pathogenic microorganisms and studying the pathogenesis of infectious diseases on them, created by L. Pasteur, R. Koch and other microbiologists, are classic example modeling, which passed into the 20th century. and very complemented in our time by modeling not only various diseases, but also various life processes, including the origin of life.

Starting around the 40s of the 20th century. The experimental method in biology has undergone significant improvement due to an increase in the resolution of many biological techniques and the development of new experimental techniques. For example, the resolution has been greatly increased genetic analysis, a number of immunological techniques. Cultured somatic cells, isolation of biochemical mutants of microorganisms and somatic cells etc. The experimental method began to be widely enriched with methods of physics and chemistry, which turned out to be extremely valuable not only in quality independent methods, but also in combination with biological methods. For example, the structure and genetic role of DNA have been elucidated through the combined use of chemical methods DNA extraction, chemical and physical methods determination of its primary and secondary structure and biological methods (transformation and genetic analysis of bacteria), evidence of its role as genetic material.

Currently, the experimental method is characterized by exceptional capabilities in the study of life phenomena. These capabilities are determined by the use of microscopy different types, including electronic with the technique of ultra-thin sections, biochemical methods, high-resolution genetic analysis, immunological methods, various methods cultivation and intravital observation in cultures of cells, tissues and organs, embryo labeling, in vitro fertilization techniques, labeled atom method, x-ray structural analysis, ultracentrifugation, spectrophotometry, chromatography, electrophoresis, sequencing, design of biologically active recombinant DNA molecules, etc. The new quality inherent in the experimental method caused qualitative changes in modeling. Along with modeling at the level of organisms, modeling at the molecular and cellular levels, and also mathematical modeling various biological processes.

The successes achieved as a result of the use of the experimental method were accompanied by changes in approaches to the study of life phenomena. New inherent in the experimental method and its technical equipment, determined and important approaches to the study of life phenomena. Advancement of biological sciences in the 20th century. was also largely determined by the emergence and development of a system-structural approach to the study of the organization and functions of living organisms, the analysis and synthesis of the data obtained on the structure and functions of the objects under study. The experimental method in modern equipment and in combination with a system-structural approach has radically transformed biology, deepened its cognitive capabilities, expanded ideas about the scientific picture of the world, and further connected it with production and medicine.

Application of biological knowledge. First of all, biological knowledge has cognitive significance. However, their practical significance. For the first time, practice began to formulate its orders for biology with the introduction of the experimental method into this science. But then biology influenced practice indirectly, in particular through medicine and agriculture.

Direct influence biology for material production began with the creation of the foundations of biotechnology in those areas of industry that are based on the biosynthetic activity of microorganisms. Based on biological knowledge, microbiological synthesis of many organic acids has long been carried out under industrial conditions, which are widely used in national economy and medicine.

In the 40-50s it was created industrial production antibiotics, and in the early 60s, the production of amino acids. Important place The microbiological industry is now occupied by the production of enzymes. The microbiological industry now produces large quantities vitamins and other substances. Both amino acids and antibiotics, and vitamins are extremely necessary in the national economy and medicine. The industrial production of substances with pharmacological properties from steroid raw materials of plant origin.

Greatest successes in the production of various substances, including drugs (insulin, somatostatin, interferon, etc.), are associated with genetic engineering, which now forms the basis of biotechnology.

Biology is extremely important for agricultural production. For example, the theoretical basis for plant and animal breeding is genetics. In recent years, genetic engineering has also entered agricultural production. It opened up new prospects for increasing food production.

Genetic engineering has a significant impact on the search for new sources of energy, new ways to preserve the environment, and clean it from various pollutants.

The development of biotechnology, the theoretical basis of which is biology, and the methodological basis of genetic engineering, is a new stage in the development of material production. The emergence of this technology is one of the moments of the latest revolution in the productive forces.

Biological knowledge is directly connected with medicine, and these connections go back into the distant past and date back to the same time as the emergence of biology itself. Moreover, many outstanding physicians of the distant past were also outstanding biologists (Hippocrates, Herophilus, Erasistratus, Galen, Avicenna, Malpighi and others). Then and later, biology began to serve medicine by “supplying” it with information about the structure of organisms. However, the role of biology as the theoretical basis of medicine in modern understanding, began to take shape only in the last century.

Creation in the 19th century. cell theory laid the truly scientific foundations for the connection between biology and medicine. In 1858, the German scientist R. Virchow (1821-1902) published a book<Щеллю-лярная патология», в которой было сформулировано положение о связи цитологического процесса с клетками, с изменениями в строении клеток. Соединив клеточную теорию с патологией, Р. Вирхов прямым образом «подвел» биологию под медицину в качестве теоретической основы.

In strengthening the ties between biology and production and medicine, a significant contribution belongs to genetics, the data of which are of utmost importance in developing the basis for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of hereditary diseases.

Dear reader!

You are holding in your hands one of the new generation textbooks on biology for students of higher educational institutions studying in natural sciences and specialties. The textbook was written by a well-known specialist in the field of biology and went through a difficult and long process of competitive selection at the All-Russian competition of new generation textbooks in general fundamental natural science disciplines. This competition was initiated. State Committee for Higher Education (hereinafter - the Ministry of Education of Russia) for the first time in the history of Russian higher education in connection with the reform of the structure and content of higher education programs and was held in 1995-1998 on the basis of the Russian University of Friendship and Peoples.

More than three hundred and fifty teams of authors took part in the competition in eleven categories, whose developments most closely corresponded to both the new curricula and state educational standards for each discipline.

The competition committee expresses the hope that this textbook will contribute to the further improvement of Russian higher professional education, and wishes all readers - students and teachers - great creative success.

First Deputy Minister

in general and vocational education Russia,

Academician of the Russian Academy of Education,

chairman of the competition commission

Professor V.D. SHADRIKOV

DEDICATED

IN MEMORY OF MOTHER

PEKHOVYA ANNA ILYINICHNA.

PARTIZANS

THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR.

WHO GAVE YOUR LIFE FOR OUR SOVIET MOTHERLAND

IN 1942

A. P. PEKHOV

BIOLOGY

WITH THE BASICS

Russian Federation as a textbook

For students of higher educational institutions,

Natural science students

Specialties and directions

Saint Petersburg"

Pekhov A.P.
P 31 Biology with basics of ecology. Series “Textbooks for universities. Special literature" - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Lan", 2000. - 672 p.
ISBN 5-8114-0219-8
The textbook covers the main sections of modern biology with the basics of ecology. It consists of six sections. Section I provides information about biodiversity, Section II - about the essence of life, the properties and organization of living things, the structure and properties of cells, growth individual development organisms, in section III - about the heredity and variability of organisms, about genetic material, about the action of genes, and about human genetics, in section IV - about the evolution of the organic world, including the origin of man, in section V - about the fundamentals of ecology, including human ecology, in section VI - about genetic engineering, biotechnology, and their environmental problems, as well as about methodological problems of biology and ecology. In the conclusion to the textbook, brief generalizations of the considered modern data of biology and ecology are given.

Drawings - 231. Tables - 45.

BBK 28
Reviewers:

prof. V. A. Golichenkov, prof. Yu. L. Guzhov

Cover design by S. L. Shapiro, A. A. Oleksenko

Play an entire book or any part of it

prohibited without written permission from the publisher.

Any attempts to violate the law will be

be prosecuted.

Publishing house "Lan", 2000

A. P. Pekhov, 2000

Publishing house "Lan",

decoration, 2000

This is how people are designed: they look at the world and look for opportunities to learn something new, they look for emotions and sensations. Each of us strives for new impressions, new experiences and adventures. This is how we are made. Our hearts are open to fascinating stories, interesting people and unknown worlds.

And since childhood, we have been re-reading our favorite books again and again, actively following the latest book releases. We plunge headlong into another world, together with the heroes of the books we are transported to places we have never been before, into the world of magic and enchantment, into the world of spirits and fantastic creatures. An unforgettable world is created for us by authors in the fantasy genre, and one of them is Alexey Pekhov.

Childhood and school years

Alexey Yurievich Pekhov was born in Moscow on March 30, 1978. He spent his childhood in Elektrostal; Alexey calls it the city of his childhood. From an early age the boy had an extraordinary thirst for adventure. At the age of three he ran away from his grandfather, following his cunning plan. And, tramping through the whole city, he showed up at work to his mother, which plunged her into a state of shock. Alexey recalls that he always found a way to “surprise” his parents.

At the age of four he painted wallpaper with felt-tip pens, at the age of five he took a “solemn oath” not to eat semolina porridge and periodically organized strikes in kindergarten over this issue. At the age of seven I went to first grade in Balashikha. I came up with the name Natalia for my younger sister, who was born in the same year. At the age of eight, he repeated his escape (this time from his grandmother) in order to explore armored cars at the railway station, walking four kilometers to it.

Education and career

He completed high school successfully, repeatedly won biology Olympiads, for which he received diplomas. Since Alexei’s parents were dentists, after graduating from school he did not hesitate for a long time: he entered the medical and dental university. Having not entered the first year, he studied at the preparatory department and a year later became a student.

He graduated from the institute almost with honors, received a diploma and entered residency, then postgraduate studies in the specialty of orthodontics. Now Alexey Yurievich Pekhov successfully combines both work and creativity. Working as a doctor takes a lot of time, but, according to the writer, his wife helps him in his creativity.

Creative duet

He met his future wife at the RosKon science fiction festival and revealed a “terrible secret”: it turns out that all these years they lived on the same street, in neighboring houses. In 2004, Alexey Yurievich Pekhov got married, his wife Elena also writes fantasy. They made an excellent creative duo.

As the writer himself says, in her person he found reliable support: an assistant, a co-author, an editor, and a friend. Elena is his first reader and invaluable adviser on many issues. Alexey is interested in photography and loves to travel wild.

He is glad that his family shares his hobbies. They take away a lot of impressions from each trip, putting together a rich “cultural” program, and take a lot of photographs in order to remember more. After all, every city has its own face, and they are all different, just like the people you meet in life.

Interests and hobbies

Alexey Yurievich Pekhov knows that traveling not only provides an opportunity to have an exciting holiday, but also brings many new impressions. Every detail can cause the birth of a new plot or image. Different countries and people’s attitudes completely change the perception of life and, according to the author, are reflected in his books.

He loves to read and has read a lot of historical and adventure books. Since childhood I have been reading science fiction books. While still in school, he began to write, composing interesting fairy tales and fantastic stories for friends. But in my last year at university I took my hobby seriously.

I started writing a book, posted the first chapter online and forgot to think about it. I was very surprised when I found a letter in the mail containing an offer of cooperation. He sent the first part of the series to the publishing house, and a few days later he was informed that they agreed to accept the manuscript. That's how it all started.

Prizes and awards

Pekhov Alexey Yuryevich began writing books in 2001. In 2002 - winner of the "Sword Without a Name" award for the fantastic debut of the year - "Crouching in the Shadows". The following year he was awarded the Silver Caduceus award for the trilogy The Chronicles of Siala. In 2004, the book “Under the Sign of the Manticore” was recognized as the best novel of the year. In 2006, there was a Silver Caduceus award for the tetralogy “Wind and Sparks,” and the novels “Wind of Wormwood” and “Wind Seekers” also received this award.

The author Alexey Yurievich Pekhov is a member of the Russian Writers' Union and a member of the SFWA (Fiction Writers Association of America). In 2011, he received the prestigious DGLA award for the first book of the Chronicle; in 2012, the second book was longlisted. And in 2015, based on the total amount of copies sold, the “Fantast of the Year” award was awarded to the writer Alexey Yuryevich Pekhov.

Books by series

"Wind and Sparks" Years of publication: 2002 - 2003. Books included in the tetralogy: “Seekers of the Wind”, “Wind of Wormwood”, “Reapers of the Wind”, “Spark and the Wind”.
"Spellcasters." Years of publication: 2011 - 2014. Books included in the series: “Spellcasters”, “Trap for the Spirit”.
"Kindrat." Years of publication: 2005 - 2010. Books included in the tetralogy: “Kindrat. Blood Brothers", "Sorcerer from the Death Clan", "The Founder", "New Gods".
"Master of Dreams" Years of publication: 2014 - 2015. Books included in the series: “Master of Dreams”, “Creator of Nightmares”.
"Blue Flame" Years of publication: 2014 - 2015. Books included in the cycle: “Letos”, “Blue Flame”.
"Guardian". Years of publication: 2010 - 2014. Books included in the tetralogy: “The Guardian”, “Auto-da-fe”, Golden Bonfires”, “The Cursed Forge”.
"Chronicles of Siala". Years of publication: 2002 - 2003. Books included in the trilogy: “Crouching in the Shadows”, “Janga with Shadows”, “Blizzard of Shadows”.

The work of Alexey Pekhov and reader reviews

Alexey Pekhov wrote more than 200 stories and novels. Many of them have been translated into several languages. The number of books published is more than a million copies. In the West, the books are very successful, for example, in Germany, according to media reports, sales of the book “The Guardian” exceeded all the publishers’ expectations, and they are already preparing a sequel, “Auto-da-fe,” for release in October 2016.

Pekhov Alexey Yuryevich is a screenwriter for the computer games “King's Bounty. The Legend of a Knight” and “Heroes of Might and Magic V” (addition to the game). According to the writer, in his youth he was very fond of computer games. The image and name of the hero “Chronicles” Sials" are taken from the game "Thief". Readers write in their numerous reviews that the plots of the books are amazing, the worlds created by the author are so exciting that you look forward to the continuation.

In the program “Model for Assembly” (Radio Liberty), they read the best of foreign and Russian science fiction, including stories written by Alexey Yuryevich Pekhov.

The book “Blizzard of Shadows,” the last in the “Chronicles of Siala” trilogy, is, as readers write, “the best of the best.” So exciting that you experience every moment with unforgettable characters who will forever remain in your memory. Many readers say that they preferred foreign science fiction writers until they became acquainted with the work of Alexei Pekhov. His books have changed the attitude towards Russian fantasy; such reading is simply fascinating.

Dear reader!

First Deputy Minister

General and vocational education in Russia,

Academician of the Russian Academy of Education,

Chairman of the competition commission

Professor V.D. SHADRIKOV

DEDICATED

^ IN MEMORY OF MOTHER

PEKHOVYA ANNA ILYINICHNA.

PARTIZANS

THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR.

WHO GAVE YOUR LIFE FOR OUR SOVIET MOTHERLAND

IN 1942

^ A. P. PEKHOV

BIOLOGY

WITH THE BASICS

Russian Federation as a textbook

For students of higher educational institutions,

Natural science students

Specialties and directions

Saint Petersburg"

Pekhov A.P.

P 31 Biology with basics of ecology. Series “Textbooks for universities. Special literature" - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Lan", 2000. - 672 p.

ISBN 5-8114-0219-8

The textbook covers the main sections of modern biology with the basics of ecology. It consists of six sections. Section I provides information about biodiversity, Section II - about the essence of life, the properties and organization of living things, the structure and properties of cells, the growth and individual development of organisms, Section III - about the heredity and variability of organisms, genetic material, and the action of genes , and about human genetics, in section IV - about the evolution of the organic world, including the origin of man, in section V - about the fundamentals of ecology, including human ecology, in section VI - about genetic engineering, biotechnology, and their environmental problems, as well as methodological problems of biology and ecology. In the conclusion to the textbook, brief generalizations of the considered modern data of biology and ecology are given.

Drawings - 231. Tables - 45.

Reviewers:

prof. V. A. Golichenkov, prof. Yu. L. Guzhov

Cover design by S. L. Shapiro, A. A. Oleksenko

Play an entire book or any part of it

prohibited without written permission from the publisher.

Any attempts to violate the law will be

be prosecuted.

Art Direction, 2000

BIOLOGY is the science of living things. For a long time it developed as a descriptive science - now it is called traditional biology.

But since the methods of physics and chemistry entered biology, it began to be called new biology, or physicochemical, i.e., molecular biology. In recent decades, truly revolutionary changes have occurred in this science, thanks to which it has moved to the forefront plan of natural science, began to actively promote and, in part, set the direction for scientific and technological progress, moving forward by leaps and bounds.

Modern data about living things are, first of all, of enormous cognitive significance, because they make an outstanding contribution to the creation of a scientific picture of the world. However, continuously carrying out the cognitive function, biology, through genetic engineering, was rapidly involved in material production and became one of the productive forces. On the other hand, one of the biological sciences, namely ecology, has gone beyond biology and become an interdisciplinary science. This happened because scientists have made enormous efforts (and continue to do so) to make society as a whole deeply aware of the fact that human activities in the environment entail not only positive, but also negative consequences; the latter can lead to a catastrophe - both local (in a single territory) and global, worldwide. And in our time it is impossible to study biology without paying attention to ecology and vice versa. Therefore, this textbook is a textbook on biology with the basics of ecology. We can say that biology and ecology are a modern complex of sciences about living things, about the origin, growth, development, heredity and variability of organisms, about the relationships of organisms with each other and with the environment, about the results of human activity in the environment and the impact of factors generated by this activity , on the human body, animals and plants. Consequently, the task of students who will use this textbook is to master the basic data of modern biology and ecology, understand their fundamental significance and use the acquired knowledge in practical work.

The textbook is written on the basis of a sample program for the discipline “Biology with Fundamentals of Ecology” and is intended for natural sciences, agriculture, physical education and some technical areas of undergraduate education. However, the author would like to note several very important points. One of them boils down to the fact that, guided by this program, we nevertheless sought to reflect in the textbook our own vision of biology, its foundations and development trends, which was formed as a result of a long period of scientific and teaching activity in this area and developed under the beneficial influence of the direct communication in certain years with luminaries of Russian science (such as N. P. Dubinin, A. A. Baev, my teacher N. N. Zhukov-Verezhnikov, A. A. Imshenetsky, V. M. Klanov, Yu A. Ovchinnikov, M. A. Peshkov, V. D. Timakov, etc.). It is impossible not to note the role of my foreign teachers G. Pontecorvo and W. Hayes (Great Britain), under whose guidance the author studied genetics and a number of problems of general biology, as well as the benefits of communication with other outstanding foreign scientists (R. Cartis, D. Clark R. Klaus, USA; S. Auerbach, N. Datta and M. Richmond, UK;

Finally, another important point that guided the author is that in the light of the extremely rapid and continuous progress of the biological sciences, the effectiveness of teaching the course set out in this textbook depends entirely not only on the novelty and relevance of the materials used, but also on the level of the methodology their teaching. For this reason, the author sought to prepare a textbook that would be rich in the latest information and that would remain useful to students for as long as possible.

So that students can become more familiar with the problems that interest them, at the end of each chapter there is a list of additional literature, which, in addition to domestic sources, also includes the latest publications in English. This language plays a leading role in communication between scientists from different countries, and without familiarizing yourself with the works of foreign specialists, it is very difficult to get a complete understanding of current state science.

Since the time of G. Hegel (1770-1831), it has been known that the quality of all things and phenomena is determined by measure. While constantly thinking about this, we also took into account the extent to which this textbook will be accessible to those who may find it useful. We hope that, in general, we were able to present such complex material in an acceptable form. We are convinced of this by our experience of teaching biology at the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, as well as the experience of lecturing on biology at a number of foreign universities, in particular at the universities of Alabama and Arizona (USA), at the University of Khartoum (Sudan) and the University of Dhaka (Bangladesh), where we had the opportunity to work for some time. It was the materials of the lectures given there that largely formed the basis of this textbook.

Professor of the Department of Biology and General Genetics of the Faculty of Medicine, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Academician of the International Academy of Sciences of Higher Education.

PEKHOV

Alexander Petrovich

Professor of the Department of Biology and

General Genetics, Faculty of Medicine,

Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation

Academician of the International Academy of Sciences of Higher Education.

In 1951 he graduated from the Kharkov Veterinary Institute and entered graduate school. In 1954 he defended his dissertation on the topic “Study of filterable streptococci” for the degree of Candidate of Biological Sciences, specialty 03.00.04 – microbiology. By the decision of the USSR Higher Attestation Commission of March 15, 1955, he was awarded the academic degree of Candidate of Biological Sciences. From 1955 to 1971 he worked at the Institute of Experimental Biology of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences as head of the laboratory of bacterial genetics. In 1961, he defended his thesis “Structural-functional analysis of the interaction of bacteria and phages” for the degree of Doctor of Biological Sciences, specialty 03.00.15 - genetics. By the decision of the USSR Higher Attestation Commission of July 27, 1961, he was awarded the academic degree of Doctor of Biological Sciences, and on September 7, 1963, by the decision of the USSR Higher Attestation Commission, he was awarded the academic title of professor.

Since 1971 Pekhov A.P. works at the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia at the Department of Biology and General Genetics, Faculty of Medicine. From 1997 to 1996, he worked as the head of the Department of Biology and General Genetics, and from 1996 to the present, he has been a professor in the same department.

During his time at the University, Professor A.P. Pekhov created a large scientific school. Under his leadership, a scientific group for the study of plasmids was created at the Department of Biology and General Genetics. Under his direct supervision, 3 doctors of medical sciences and more than 40 candidates of medical and biological sciences were trained, who are actively working at universities in Russia and abroad

In the works of Pekhov A.P. The results of studying the molecular mechanisms of regulation of genes for plasmid transfer and drug resistance of bacteria, as well as the processes of modeling the evolution of cointegrative plasmids are reflected. He established the fine structure of the genetic apparatus of bacteria, revealed the mechanisms of synthesis of DNA and protein shells of bacterial viruses, and developed principles for the identification and classification of bacterial plasmids and transposons. Professor A.P. Pekhov theoretically substantiated and developed the principles of modeling the evolution of bacterial plasmids and genetic transfer factors.

Scientific activity of A.P. Pekhova has wide international recognition. He has repeatedly conducted scientific research and given lectures at universities in the USA, Sweden, England, India, Bangladesh, Japan, Yemen and Sudan and other countries. He has the title of Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation and is an academician of the International Academy of Sciences of Higher Education.

Awards: For services in the field of science and education Pekhov A.P. awarded the Order of Friendship of Peoples and Honorary Worker of Higher Professional Education. Pekhov A.P. He is also a veteran of the Great Patriotic War, he was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War.

Main publications:

Myandina G.I., Shchipkova N.I., Pekhov A.P. Identification and study of derepressed mutants of the pAP43 plasmid // Molecular genetics, microbiol. and virusol. – 1983.- No. 1. – P.30-33.

Shchipkov V.P., Buyanova N.I., Myandina G.I., Pekhov A.P. Study of tra-gene regulation systems of derepressed F-like plasmids // Bulletin of Experiments. biology and honey – 1983. - No. 8. – P.226 – 227.

Myandina G.I., Shchipkov V.P., Pekhov A.P. Systems of genetic regulation of the transfer of cointegrative plasmids in E. coli K-12 cells // Experimental Bulletin. biology and medicine - 1993. -No. 9. – P.304-305

Myandina G.I., Pekhov A.P. Activity of FIN systems of artificially formed cointegrative plasmids pAP42/pRSF2124 and pAP42/pUB781 // Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine - 1995. - No. 1. – P.65-66.

Shchipkov V.P., Pekhov A.P. Plasmids and pathogenicity of bacteria // Agrarian Russia. - 2002. - No. 2. - Pages 36-42.

A.P. Pekhov. Introduction to molecular genetics. – M.: Medicine, 1973. – 266 p.

A.P. Pekhov. Genetics of bacteria. – M.: Medicine, 1977. – 407 p.

A.P. Pekhov. Bacterial plasmids. – M.: Medicine, 1986. – 223 p.

Pekhov A.P. . Biology with basics of ecology. Textbook (second edition), stamped by the Ministry of Education . - S.-Pb., M. Krasnodar: Publishing house. “Fallow deer”, 2004. - 687 pages