Normal condition and the functioning of the biosphere is impossible without providing a favorable habitat for all biological systems in all their diversity. The loss of biodiversity threatens not only human well-being, but also its very existence. The rate of decline in biodiversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels has increased dramatically over the past 30-40 years. The most significant reduction and disappearance of plant and animal species in 65 million years is occurring at a rate five thousand times faster than the natural course of evolution of the biosphere.
IN total All over the world, 25-30 thousand plant species, or 10% of the world flora, need protection. A reduction in areas covered with green vegetation or its thinning out is extremely undesirable, since, firstly, the global carbon cycle in the biosphere is disrupted and, secondly, the intensity of absorption decreases solar energy biosphere during the process of photosynthesis.
Forests are of great importance in nature and human life, which in Russia occupy more than 1.2 billion hectares, or 75% of the total area land fund. But the distribution of forests is uneven: the largest part of them is located in Western and Eastern Siberia and on Far East, where the main areas of Scots pine, spruce, larch, fir, Siberian cedar, and aspen are concentrated. The influence of forests on the natural environment is very diverse and is manifested in the fact that forests are the main supplier of oxygen on the planet and directly affect water regime both in the territories they occupy and in the adjacent territories and regulate the water balance. They reduce the negative impact of droughts and hot winds, restrain the movement of shifting sands, soften the climate, help increase agricultural yields, absorb and transform part of the atmospheric chemical pollution, protect soils from water and wind erosion, mudflows, landslides, coastal destruction and other unfavorable geological processes, and also create normal sanitary and hygienic conditions, have a beneficial effect on the human psyche, and have great recreational importance.
According to their significance, location and functions, all forests are divided into three groups:
- forests performing protective environmental functions(water protection, field protection, sanitary and hygienic, recreational); they are strictly protected, especially forest parks, urban forests, especially valuable forest areas, national parks;
- forests with protective and limited operational value, and a strict forest management regime;
- exploitation forests, which are the main supplier of wood, but wood harvesting must be carried out without changing natural biotopes and disturbing the natural ecological balance.
Human impact on forests and the entire vegetable world can be direct or indirect. Direct impacts include clear cutting of forests, Forest fires and burning of vegetation, destruction of forests and vegetation during the creation of household and economic infrastructure - cities, quarries, industrial complexes, increasing tourism pressure. Indirect impact is a change in the living conditions of vegetation as a result of anthropogenic pollution air, water, pesticides and mineral fertilizers. The penetration of alien plant species (introduced species) into plant communities is also of certain importance.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"KEMEROVSK STATE UNIVERSITY"
Department of Biology
Specialty: Geography
DIRECT AND INDIRECT HUMAN IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT
ABSTRACT
Completed by: Postnikova V.S.
Checked:
Kemerovo 2011
Table of contents:
Introduction………………………………………………………………………...3
1. Human impact on nature: intentional, unintentional, direct and indirect……………………………………………………………… ……….4
2. Impact of mining………………………………………………………5
3. Impact on the hydrosphere…………………………………………………….7
4. Impact on fauna…………………………………… …………9
5. Impact on the earth’s crust…………………………………………… ……….10
6. Impact on climate………………………………………………………..12
7. Impact on marine ecosystems……………………… ………………...13
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….15
References………………………………………………………………………………16
Introduction
Each of us, each of those who consider themselves a part of global humanity, is obliged to know what impact human activity has on the world around us and to feel a share of responsibility for certain actions. It is man who is the cause of his own fears about nature, as a home that provides food, warmth and other conditions for his normal life. Human activity is a very aggressive and actively destructive (transforming) force on our planet. From the very beginning of his development, man felt himself to be the master of everything that surrounds him. But, as the proverb says: “Don’t cut the branch you’re sitting on.” One wrong decision and it may take tens or even hundreds of years to correct. fatal mistake. The natural balance is very fragile. If you don’t seriously think about your activities, then this very activity will certainly begin to strangle humanity itself. This suffocation has already begun to some extent and if it is not stopped, it will immediately begin to develop at an incredibly fast speed.
However, the first steps towards nature are already being taken, nature is being respected, cared for and basic order is maintained in it. Although more and more pollution is coming, a huge number are being eliminated, but this is not enough. Pollution should not be eliminated, but prevented.
We need global unification, long-term, coordinated and purposeful activity of the driving and producing forces of the planet.
But, initially, in order to fight against human influence on surrounding nature it is necessary to find out the influence of human activity on individual sections of nature. This knowledge allows humanity to study the problem more deeply, to find out what reasons led to the disruption of the natural balance and the deterioration of the ecological state. Also, a deep study of sections of nature allows us to develop optimal plans for correcting the situation on the globe in a shorter time.
The solution to the problem of the environment - if we take into account the costs of research, the creation of new technologies, the re-equipment of production and the restoration, at least partially, of destroyed natural systems - grows into perhaps the largest, most ambitious and expensive program.
1. Human impact on nature: intentional, unintentional, direct and indirect.
Impact– direct impact of human economic activity on the natural environment. All types of impact can be combined into type 4: intentional, unintentional, direct and indirect (mediated).
Intentional influence occurs in the process of material production in order to satisfy certain needs of society. These include: mining, construction of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, irrigation canals, hydroelectric power stations), deforestation to expand agricultural areas and to obtain timber, etc.
Unintentional impacts occur as a side effect of the first type of impact, in particular, open-pit mining leads to a decrease in groundwater levels, air pollution, and the formation of man-made landforms (quarries, waste heaps, tailings dumps). The construction of hydroelectric power stations is associated with the formation of artificial reservoirs, which affect the environment: they cause an increase in groundwater levels, change the hydrological regime of rivers, etc. When receiving energy from traditional sources(coal, oil, gas) there is pollution of the atmosphere, surface watercourses, groundwater etc.
Both intentional and unintentional impacts can be direct and indirect.
Direct impacts occur when there is direct influence economic activity human influence on the environment, in particular irrigation (irrigation) directly affects the soil and changes all processes associated with it.
Indirect impacts occur indirectly – through chains of interconnected influences. Thus, intentional indirect impacts are the use of fertilizers and the direct impact on crop yields, and unintentional ones are the effect of aerosols on the amount of solar radiation(especially in cities), etc.
2. Impact of mining.
Impact of mining on the environment - manifests itself in a variety of ways in direct and indirect impacts on natural landscapes. The greatest disturbances to the earth's surface occur during open-pit mining, which accounts for more than 75% of mining production in our country.
Currently total area lands disturbed by mining (coal, iron and manganese ores, non-metallic raw materials, peat, etc.), as well as occupied by mining waste, exceeded 2 million hectares, of which 65% are in the European part of the country. In Kuzbass alone, more than 30 thousand hectares of land are now occupied by coal quarries; in the region of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA) there are no more than 25 thousand hectares of fertile land.
It is estimated that when mining 1 million tons of iron ore, up to 640 hectares of land are disturbed, manganese - up to 600 hectares, coal - up to 100 hectares. Mining contributes to the destruction of vegetation, the emergence of man-made landforms (quarries, dumps, tailings, etc.), deformation of areas earth's crust(especially with underground mining methods).
Indirect impacts are manifested in changes in the groundwater regime, in the pollution of the air basin, surface watercourses and groundwater, and also contribute to flooding and waterlogging, which ultimately leads to an increase in the incidence rate local population. Among the air pollutants, the most prominent are dust and gas contamination. It is estimated that about 200 thousand tons of dust are released annually from underground mines and mines; coal mining in the amount of 2 billion tons per year from approximately 4,000 mines in various countries of the world is accompanied by the release of 27 billion m 3 of methane and 17 billion m 3 into the atmosphere carbon dioxide. In our country, when developing coal deposits using the underground method, significant amounts of methane and CO 2 are also recorded entering the air basin: annually in the Donbass (364 mines) and in the Kuzbass (78 mines), 3870 and 680 million m 3 of methane and carbon dioxide are released, respectively. 1200 and 970 million m3.
Mining has a negative impact on surface watercourses and groundwater, which are heavily polluted by mechanical impurities and mineral salts. Every year, about 2.5 billion m3 of contaminated mine water is pumped to the surface from coal mines. During open-pit mining, high-quality reserves are the first to be depleted. fresh water. In the quarries of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, infiltration from tailings impedes the decrease in the level of the upper aquifer of the horizon by 50 m, which leads to a rise in the groundwater level and swamping of the adjacent territory.
Mining also has a negative impact on the Earth's interior, as waste is buried there. industrial production, radioactive waste (in the USA - 246 underground disposal sites), etc. In Sweden, Norway, England, Finland, oil and gas storage facilities, drinking water storage facilities, underground refrigerators, etc. are installed in mine workings.
3. Impact on the hydrosphere.
Impact on the hydrosphere– man began to have a significant impact on the hydrosphere and water balance of the planet. Anthropogenic transformations of the continents' waters have already reached a global scale, disrupting the natural regime of even the largest lakes and rivers on the globe. This was facilitated by: the construction of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, irrigation canals and water transfer systems), an increase in the area of irrigated land, watering of arid areas, urbanization, and pollution of fresh water by industrial and municipal wastewater. Currently, there are about 30 thousand reservoirs in the world and under construction, the volume of water of which has exceeded 6000 km 3. But 95% of this volume comes from large reservoirs. There are 2442 in the world large reservoirs, while their largest number falls on North America– 887 and Asia – 647. 237 large reservoirs were built on the territory of the former USSR.
In general, while the area of reservoirs in the world is only 0.3% of land, they increase river flow by 27%. However, large reservoirs have a negative impact on the environment: they change the groundwater regime, their water areas occupy large areas of fertile land, and lead to secondary soil salinization.
There are direct and indirect impacts of reservoirs on the environment. The direct impact is manifested primarily in permanent and temporary flooding and submergence of land. Most of these lands are highly productive agricultural and forest lands. Thus, the share of agricultural lands flooded by the reservoirs of the Volga-Kama cascade of hydroelectric power stations is 48% of the entire flooded territory, and some of them are located in the floodplain zone, characterized by high fertility. About 38% of the flooded lands were forests and shrubs. In desert and semi-desert zones, three quarters of all flooded lands are pastures.
The indirect impacts of reservoirs on the environment have not been studied as fully as the direct ones, but some forms of their manifestation are obvious even now. This is the case, for example, with climate change, which manifests itself in the zone of influence of the reservoir in an increase in air humidity and the formation of fairly frequent fogs, a decrease in cloudiness in the daytime over the water area and a decrease in the average annual precipitation there, a change in the direction and speed of wind, a decrease in the amplitude of air temperature fluctuations throughout the day and year.
The experience of operating domestic reservoirs also shows that the amount of precipitation in coastal zone increases noticeably, and the average annual air temperature in the area of large southern reservoirs decreases slightly. Changes in other meteorological indicators are also observed. Climate change, together with flooding and reshaping of banks, sometimes leads to a deterioration in the condition of coastal woody vegetation and even its death.
The indirect impacts of reservoirs should also include the appearance of territories that become less suitable for use for economic purposes (for example, islands in the upper reaches, dry floodplains in the lower reaches, etc.). It is also impossible not to note the impact of the creation of reservoirs on fisheries. Two things should be pointed out here. On the one hand, the construction of a hydroelectric dam prevents the passage of fish to spawning grounds, and on the other, the requirements of the fishery for the flow regime completely contradict the tasks of regulating the flow, i.e. the purpose for which the reservoir is created.
In Russia, large reservoirs (90% of 237 in the former USSR), with a surface area of 15 million hectares, occupy about 1% of its territory, but of this value, 60–70% are flooded lands. Hydraulic structures lead to the degradation of river ecosystems. IN last years In our country, schemes have been drawn up for improving the natural and technical condition and improvement of some large reservoirs and canals. This will reduce the degree of their adverse impact on the environment.
4. Impact on the animal world.
Impact on wildlife– animals, together with plants, play an exceptional role in the migration of chemical elements, which underlies the relationships existing in nature; they are also important for human existence as a source of food and various resources. However, human economic activity has greatly influenced the animal world of the planet. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, 94 species of birds and 63 species of mammals have become extinct on Earth since 1600. Animals such as the tarpan, aurochs, marsupial wolf, European ibis, etc. have disappeared. The fauna of the ocean islands has especially suffered. As a result of anthropogenic impact on the continents, the number of endangered and rare animal species (bison, vicuna, condor, etc.) has increased. In Asia, the number of animals such as rhinoceros, tiger, cheetah, etc. has decreased alarmingly.
In Russia, by the beginning of this century, certain species of animals (bison, river beaver, sable, muskrat, kulan) became rare, so reserves were organized for their protection and reproduction. This made it possible to restore the bison population and increase the number of Amur tigers and polar bears.
However, in recent years, the animal world has been negatively affected by the excessive use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, pollution of the World Ocean and other anthropogenic factors, all of which are indirect factors affecting the environment. Thus, in Sweden, the use of pesticides led to the death primarily of birds of prey (peregrine falcon, kestrel, white-tailed eagle, eagle owl, long-eared owl), larks, rooks, pheasants, partridges, etc. die. A similar picture is observed in many Western European countries. Therefore, with increasing anthropogenic pressure, many animal species need further protection and reproduction.
etc.................
Direct and indirect, intentional and unintentional impacts on nature. Direct anthropogenic impact is the direct impact of human activity on natural ecosystems. Direct impact is any type of direct human intervention into biogeocenoses: construction of settlements, roads, use of land in agricultural production, logging, hunting or fishing, mining, industrial production, etc. All this leads to the degeneration of biogeocenoses and a narrowing of diversity biological species, as well as to the accumulation of pollution in the natural environment.[...]
Direct toxic effects increased concentrations-ozone in the lower atmosphere on natural objects and humans has been studied for a long time and widely in hygienic studies of the consequences of lower atmosphere pollution in cities and industrial regions. Reviews of the directions and results of these studies are given in many publications, among which are such monographs as, as well as many “articles in journals on environmental protection. [...]
On the planet in recent years, global irreversible changes have also been occurring in nature, caused by natural and man-made disasters. Gradually destroyed ozone layer atmosphere, protecting the Earth from the direct destructive effects of solar ultraviolet rays, which can destroy all life on Earth. There is a gradual warming of the climate, which can lead to the melting of snow and ice and an increase in the level of the World Ocean.[...]
Direct (immediate) impact - change in nature as a result of the direct impact of human economic activity on natural objects and phenomena. Indirect (mediated) impact - a change in nature as a result of chain reactions or secondary phenomena associated with human economic activity (Fig. 24).[...]
Direct impact on nature is a direct, but by no means always planned and desired change in nature in the process of human economic activity.[...]
The impact of chemical compounds contained in waste on humans and wildlife occurs both directly and indirectly. Direct path - hit harmful compounds into the human body with air and drinking water; indirect path - for example, biological. First, pollutants enter plants, eaten by animals, and then through food into the human body. In this case, chemical and biological transformations occur with the original compounds, leading to the formation of new, more or less dangerous substances for the body.[...]
IMPACT ON NATURE DIRECT - direct, but not always planned and desired change in nature in the course of economic activity.[...]
It is impossible in principle to conduct direct experiments with the planet’s biosphere. The doctrine of nature will contain science in the proper sense only to the extent that mathematics can be applied in it” (I. Kant).[...]
There are direct impacts on nature, associated with the direct influence of humans on certain natural resources, and indirect, resulting from direct ones. For example, cutting down forests (without affecting other natural resources) has an indirect impact on the water regime of soils, water availability in rivers, conditions for wind and water erosion etc. Processes with this type of impact can be inevitable, as well as accompanying, reversible and irreversible. For example, soil drainage processes lead to significant compaction; and violation of the moss cover is, in principle, a reversible process, like many mechanical damage to soils. In Fig. 5.1 shows the diagram possible processes influencing changes in the natural situation in areas affected by enterprises.[...]
Natural and subsoil management as an independent type scientific activity implemented since the late 60s and early 70s. due to awareness of the threat of environmental risk. Many researchers, including V.I., paid attention to the need to find practical ways that can ensure conflict-free coexistence of nature and society. Vernadsky, who emphasized that uncontrolled human activity poses the danger of a global catastrophe. From this period begins active search strategic direction of environmental activities, creation and improvement of methods, as well as means of environmental protection natural environment. Modern systems environmental management are focused on ensuring compliance with state (international) standards and requirements that limit the negative impact of natural resource management and its results on the natural environment and contribute to its restoration and reproduction. They are implemented through a set of administrative, legal, organizational, economic and other methods and measures that determine the mechanisms for managing the system " society-nature" Control mechanisms environmental activities developed in different countries depending on historical, political, ethnocultural and other factors. Currently, there are usually two (three) groups of mechanisms environmental management: administrative and legal regulation and a system of economic incentives (levers).[...]
By consuming raw materials from nature, industry introduces many new substances into the biosphere, some of which have a harmful effect, while others, on the contrary, are usefully used by living organisms. Harmful substances, polluting the environment, often then act as an adverse effect of the external environment on living organisms. In ecology, the ability of a species to withstand adverse environmental influences is called biotic potential. The influence of environmental factors is manifested not only in their direct impact on animals, but also indirectly through changes in the fertility and survival of animals through intrapopulation mechanisms reflecting active reaction populations on external influences. As a result, in the presence of increasing adverse effects of the external environment due to the burdening of the biosphere with industrial and other waste, a violation occurs biological cycle in individual ecosystems, and in the future, disturbances in the balance and cyclic structure of the biosphere may occur.[...]
Environment is a part of nature that surrounds living organisms and has a direct or indirect impact on them. [...]
Anthropogenic impact on the environment has turned out to be destructive. Evolution is forced to proceed extensively, under the influence external factors, with a pace dictated not by the move natural phenomena, but by the transformation of nature by man. Law historical development biological systems do not work fully or do not work at all due to the fact that the role of biotic influence on the environment has relatively decreased. Transformative human activity predominates. Here, following the direct destruction of species, one should expect the self-destruction of living things. This process actually occurs in the form of mass reproduction of individual organisms that destroy existing ecosystems. It all depends on the pace of change. It should be taken into account that the evolution of the biosphere was not uniform (Fig. 332), and, despite the increasing degree of perfection biogeochemical cycle, this process did not go smoothly.[...]
Anthropogenic impacts on nature and social consequences of the implementation of oil production projects will greatly depend on the attention that oil company pays attention to these issues. Possible are both idyllic pictures of grazing herds of wild deer, for which special passages have been made under the oil pipelines, a completely satisfied local indigenous and old-timer population receiving their share of the profits, and, more importantly, work, and directly opposite situations.[...]
Anthropogenic impact on nature - direct conscious or indirect and unconscious impact human activity, causing changes in the natural environment, natural landscapes.[...]
When studying environmental issues, the first thing to note is that they are not as clear-cut as they appear at first glance. Of course, in some cases these issues are resolved quite clearly. For example, the leak from a storage facility at a chemical plant of the highly toxic compound 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) in 1976 (Seveso, Italy), which led to tragic results for people and animals, should undoubtedly be considered as a direct impact on nature. The natural supply of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere is many times greater than the contribution due to anthropogenic activities. This issue will be discussed in detail further (section 2.2.6). The problem is also complicated by the fact that living conditions on our planet do not remain constant, but continuously change over time. [...]
ANTHROPOGENIC LOAD - the degree of direct and indirect impact of people and their economy on nature as a whole or on its individual ecological components and elements of landscapes, natural resources, species of living things, etc.).[...]
IN modern literature Technogenic impacts are often identified with the sources of activities or even their consequences, which leads to inconsistency in the final documents and research that does not meet the intended purpose. Many classifications do not take into account the rule of dividing the scope of a concept and lack the elementary logic of construction. Signs of variability of anthropogenesis should reflect the main features of technogenic impacts on the earth, therefore, in the taxonomic series of impacts, it is advisable to distinguish a class, subclass, type, type and variety of impact. In this case, the class is distinguished by the nature (mechanism) of impact; type - according to the nature of the impact, taking into account “direct” and “reverse” effects, regardless of the source of impact; type - according to the specific technogenic influence that one or another source has, which reveals its individuality; type of impact - according to additional particular characteristics (temporary nature of the action, geometric dimensions, position in space, etc.).[...]
Ecological catastrophy- this is an irreversible phenomenon in nature, representing one of the states of nature, manifested in a natural anomaly (Greek anomalía - deviation from the norm, from general pattern). Examples of natural anomalies are prolonged drought, mass death of livestock, which often arise due to the direct or indirect impact of human activity on natural processes, leading to acutely unfavorable economic consequences or mass death of the population of a certain region.[...]
Because sulfuric acid provides multilateral direct and indirect negative impacts on living nature and, in general, on geosystems, ecosystems, harmful effects pollutants manifest themselves in a more dramatic form in the warm season. Therefore, we should expect an increase negative effect in years with positive precipitation anomalies of this period. In the Republic of Belarus, in humid years with rainy summers, the most frequent cyclones are from the west and partly from the northwest (Kilmetova, 1972). In such years they repeat every 10-13 days. Cyclones carry a large number of moisture and therefore more than 53% of precipitation falls on them. [...]
COSTS OF ECOLOGICAL SOCIAL PRODUCTION - costs of measures that reduce emissions and discharges of pollutants into the environment of the enterprise (improving technology, changing the composition of raw materials, construction treatment facilities etc.), as well as on measures that do not reduce emissions, but affect the degree of their impact on nature (construction of high pipes, dilution, waste disposal, establishment of sanitary zones around enterprises, etc.). RADIATION - emission atomic particles or electromagnetic waves and the formation of their field. See Alpha, Beta, Gamma, X-ray I., Ionizing I.. Cosmic I. CLIMATE CHANGE - see/content climate change. LANDSCAPE CHANGE - the acquisition of new properties by the landscape or the loss of previous properties under the influence of external factors or self-development. In environmental literature it occupies a middle position in the chain of concepts: impact on the landscape - I.l. - consequences in economic activity or public health. There are direct and indirect I.l., I.l. during the functioning, dynamics or development of the landscape, reversible and irreversible I.L., progressive and regressive I.L., targeted and collateral I.L., spontaneous (associated with endogenous factors) and external (due to exogenous factors), I.l. in general or changes in individual components of the landscape.[...]
Anthropogenic factors are factors caused by man's active relationship with nature. Human activity on the planet should be identified as a special force that has both direct and indirect effects on nature. Direct impacts include human consumption, reproduction and settlement of individual species of animals and plants, as well as the creation of entire biocenoses. Indirect impact is carried out by changing the habitat of organisms: climate, river regime, land conditions, etc. As the population and technical equipment of mankind grows specific gravity anthropogenic environmental factors are steadily increasing.[...]
The specificity of human society is that in the process of development, as a result of labor, it was increasingly freed from direct dependence on nature and increasingly influenced it.[...]
Anthropic and anthropogenic environmental factors associated with human economic activity. In the first case we're talking about about the direct impact of people on living systems (for example, artificial selection and selection of cultivated plants and animals), in the second - about their indirect, indirect impact on nature (for example, flooding of agricultural landscapes when creating reservoirs). Many authors use the same term " anthropogenic factor", denoting both anthropic and anthropogenic impacts on nature.[ ...]
The protection of the geological environment, of course, cannot be understood as its absolute inviolability; this is incompatible with the needs of development modern society. You always have to make some compromise, find the optimal balance between the positive (desired) and negative (unwanted) consequences of technogenic influence on the subsoil during exploration and mining. Consequently, it is necessary to increase the positive and reduce the negative consequences of technogenesis. From these positions, subsoil protection appears as a complex problem of achieving maximum economic effect while minimizing negative consequences(damage) from technogenic impact. In this case, both the direct damage caused to nature by a specific technogenic impact, and the costs necessary to reduce or prevent this damage must be taken into account. To develop an optimal strategy for preventing, reducing or eliminating negative consequences technogenesis of the subsoil, it is necessary to know the sources, paths and nature of the impact of all oil industry objects on the geological environment, organize the flow of reliable information about the state of the subsoil, and be able to predict possible development processes.[...]
Mastery of fire, improvement of hunting tools, transition from gathering to agriculture and animal husbandry, the emergence of machines, industrial production, transformation large areas agrocenoses steadily changed human existence on Earth. It was increasingly freed from direct dependence on the external environment, increased its impact on nature, and contributed to the rapid development of production activities, in the process of which human society consumes natural resources and creates the necessary means of production, finished goods and food products. The biological metabolism between man and nature has not disappeared; nature has been and remains a constant condition of human life and the development of society. However, the new exchange of substances and energy between nature and society that has arisen in the process of production activity is already of a different, technogenic, and not biological nature and is called anthropogenic or social metabolism.[...]
The scientific and technological revolution, the rapid growth of industry, motor transport, the increase in the size and urbanization of the population, the chemicalization of agricultural production - all these factors inevitably lead to an increase in the exploitation of natural resources and have an impact on the surrounding nature - flora and fauna, the state of the subsoil, soil, air and water pool. Therefore, it is hardly possible to name a more vibrant problem on a global scale these days than environmental protection and natural resources of our planet. Environmental protection is the direct duty of every person. IN new Constitution states: “Citizens of the USSR are obliged to take care of nature and protect its wealth).[...]
Reservoirs are very complex environmental objects. While solving many water management problems, they at the same time cause contradictions in the requirements of economic sectors for water resources. As the parameters of reservoirs increase, not only their direct effect increases, but also the side effects of their formation, which are not always favorable for nature and the economy, also increase (Chapter 6). Therefore, taking into account the diversity of the impact of reservoirs on the environment, in the distant future it is planned to construct mainly small and medium-sized reservoirs.[...]
The term “ecology” was introduced by the German scientist E. Haeckel in 1866 (derived from the Greek meaning dwelling, shelter, tsology - science). It studies the interaction of organisms with the environment and with each other. The environment is the environment for human habitation and production activities, the content of which is characterized by interaction with inanimate nature(climate, relief, etc.) and living organisms. The concept of “environment” includes social, natural and artificially created physical, chemical and biological factors, that is, everything that directly or indirectly affects human life and activity.
Traditionally in psychological science there are two main types pedagogical impact; persuasion and suggestion.
Belief - psychological impact, addressed to the consciousness and will of the child. This is a logically reasoned influence of one person or group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.
The goal of persuasion is the desire to ensure that the student consciously accepts views, attitudes and follows them in his activities. The art of persuasion consists of the ability to find compelling arguments (facts, examples, patterns) and connect them with personal experience pupil. The effectiveness of persuasion depends on the authority of the teacher, on his own conviction in what he is talking about, on the degree of emotional intensity of persuasion, since the process of persuasion must also involve emotional sphere pupil. Undoubtedly, you need to know well the personality and individual characteristics of the child.
Suggestion is a psychological influence that is characterized by reduced argumentation and is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.
The essence of suggestion is that an attitude aimed at changing mental activity, which becomes his internal attitude that regulates mental and physical activity with varying degrees of automaticity.
V.N. Kulikov considers the following types of suggestion: intentional and unintentional, positive and negative, direct and indirect.
Suggestor (in in this case his role is played by a teacher) deliberately, purposefully, consciously instills, knowing exactly what he wants to instill. With unintentional suggestion, the teacher does not pursue the goal of instilling this or that thought, action, deed. Such suggestion often takes place in the activities of teachers and parents and leads far from the results that they set for themselves. Let's give examples. Fear for the child’s health is heard in the remarks: “Move away from the window, you’ll catch a cold!” (suggested physical weakness, ill health, the child may actually get sick). Often, a teacher, reproaching a child for laziness, stubbornness or slow-wittedness, instills in him these qualities. It has been noted that the higher the child’s predisposition to what is being suggested, the stronger the result of unintentional suggestion.
There are positive and negative suggestions depending on what psychological properties in terms of content from a moral point of view, they are indoctrinated. More often negative properties are instilled unintentionally; attitudes of positive content are deliberately introduced. According to the method of influence, direct and indirect suggestion are distinguished. Direct suggestion is a suggestion in which the suggestor gives his orders directly, openly. The purpose of suggestion, just as with persuasion, is not hidden (“I think you will always prepare your homework diligently from now on”), B school practice two types of direct suggestion are used: command, order and suggestive instruction. Orders are used in situations that require unconditional acceptance and execution: “Get up!”, “Remove the textbooks from the table!” Such phrases are pronounced in a tone that does not allow for objection.
Inspirational instructions are used in the form of laconic phrases, the so-called suggestion formulas, which are pronounced by the teacher, introducing the attitude into the student’s psyche: “I can and want to study well!” As the results of experiments show, inspiring instruction can change the attitude of schoolchildren and give the first impulse to overcome passivity, laziness, and indifference.
With indirect suggestion, the target of suggestion is hidden from the person being suggested (suggerend). IN pedagogical practice More often there are situations in which it is more expedient to influence the student not with an explanation or a categorical demand, but by using indirect suggestion. It is considered more effective than direct suggestion. Varieties of indirect suggestion: suggestion through prohibition, suggestion through opposition and suggestion by trust.
The essence of suggestion through a ban is that the student is prohibited from performing any action without indicating the reason for the ban. As a result, an action is performed that is the opposite of what is prohibited. The effectiveness of suggestion through prohibition depends on the degree of negativity of the person being suggested.
In pedagogical practice, suggestion through opposition is used. Suggerend is contrasted with another person with whom he competes in a particular matter. The influence formula says something opposite to what the suggestor actually wants. For example, a timid and insecure teenager needs to be inspired with courage and confidence to ski down the mountain. Here the formula of suggestion may look something like this: “This mountain is not very high... But you are unlikely to have the courage to go down... Here X. (our subject is competing with him) probably wouldn’t be afraid and would go down...”
IN experimental works[it is shown that when working with “difficult”, pedagogically neglected children, when other methods of influence do not help or are ineffective, the so-called relaxopedia can be used. This is a verbal suggestion that uses relaxation to enhance its effect.
IN didactic purposes, mainly for studying foreign language, suggestopedia is used. However, the use of suggestopedia is effective only for certain individual characteristics of students, in particular, those with an intuitive-sensual disposition, labile, with a predominance of the first signaling system, auditory modality of perception and involuntary memorization. For students with a rational-logical mindset, inert, with a predominance of voluntary memorization and the visual modality of perception, the suggestopedia method is ineffective.
The animal world of our planet has about 2 million species of animals. As a result of human impact, the numbers of many species have decreased significantly, and some of them have completely disappeared.
Modern man has existed on Earth for about 40 thousand years. He began to engage in cattle breeding and agriculture only 10 thousand years ago. Therefore, for 30 thousand years, hunting was an almost exclusive source of food and clothing. The improvement of hunting tools and methods was accompanied by the death of a number of animal species.
The development of weapons and vehicles allowed man to penetrate into the most remote corners globe. And everywhere the development of new lands was accompanied by the merciless extermination of animals and the death of a number of species. The tarpan, the European steppe horse, was completely destroyed by hunting. The victims of the hunt were turs, spectacled cormorants, Labrador eiders, Bengal hoopoe and many other animals. As a result of unregulated hunting, dozens of species of animals and birds are on the verge of extinction.
The number of animals is decreasing not only as a result of direct extermination, but also due to the deterioration of environmental conditions in territories and habitats. Anthropogenic changes in landscapes adversely affect the living conditions of most animal species. Clearing forests, plowing steppes and prairies, draining swamps, regulating runoff, polluting the waters of rivers, lakes and seas - all this taken together hinders normal life wild animals, leads to a decrease in their numbers even with a ban on hunting.
Intensive timber harvesting in many countries has led to changes in forests. Coniferous forests are increasingly being replaced by small-leaved forests. At the same time, the composition of their fauna also changes. Not all animals and birds living in coniferous forests, can find ample food and shelter space in secondary birch and aspen forests. For example, squirrels and martens and many species of birds cannot live in them.
The transformation and change in the nature of many rivers and lakes radically changes the living conditions of most river and lake fish and leads to a decrease in their numbers. Pollution of water bodies causes enormous damage to fish stocks. At the same time, the oxygen content in the water sharply decreases, which leads to massive fish kills.
Huge impact on ecological state reservoirs are provided by dams on rivers. They block the way for migratory fish to spawn, worsen the condition of spawning grounds, and sharply reduce the influx nutrients in river deltas and coastal parts of seas and lakes. To prevent negative influence dams on the ecosystems of aquatic complexes, a number of engineering and biotechnical measures are taken (fish passages and fish lifts are built to ensure the movement of fish to spawn). Most effective way reproduction of the fish stock consists in the construction of fish hatcheries and fish hatcheries.
Human activity greatly influences the animal world, causing an increase in the number of some species, a decrease in others, and the death of others. This impact can be direct and indirect.
Direct impacts are experienced by commercial animals that are hunted for fur (muskrat, chinchilla, foxes, mink), meat (African donkey), fat (whales, pigs), etc. As a result, their numbers decrease individual species disappear.
To combat agricultural pests, a number of species move from one area to another. At the same time, there are often cases when migrants themselves become pests. For example, the mongoose, introduced to Antilles to combat rodents, began to harm ground-nesting birds and spread rabies among animals.
Also, the direct effects of humans on animals include their death from pesticides and poisoning by emissions industrial enterprises.| The most striking example of this impact on animals is whaling (the creation of a harpoon cannon and floating bases for whale processing) at the beginning of the century, which led to the disappearance of individual whale populations and a sharp drop in their total numbers.
The indirect influence of humans on animals is manifested due to changes in the habitat during deforestation (black stork), plowing of steppes (steppe eagle, bustard and little bustard), drainage of swamps (Far Eastern stork), construction of dams (fish), construction of cities, use of pesticides ( red-legged stork), etc.
Under the influence of economic activity, arose anthropogenic landscapes with their characteristic fauna. Only in populated areas in the subarctic and temperate zone northern hemisphere There are house sparrows, city swallows, jackdaws, and house mice.
The plowing of steppes and prairies and the reduction of island forests in the forest-steppe are accompanied by the almost complete disappearance of many steppe animals and birds. In steppe agrocenoses, saigas, bustards, little bustards, gray partridges, quails, etc. have almost completely disappeared.
Negative impact from humans to animals is increasing, and for many species it is becoming threatening. Every year one species (or subspecies) of vertebrate animals dies; More than 600 species of birds (bustard, bar-headed goose, mandarin duck) and 120 species of mammals (Amur tiger) are in danger of extinction. For such animals, special conservation measures are required.
