Poems by A. S

Poems and poems Answer 1.94 Diseases were indecent. Pushkin could not leave the house and diligently wrote “Ruslana and

10. Between heaven and earth: romantic bastards Together with the display of homeless earthly wanderers, romantic literature cultivated another, related image, the movement of which was mainly oriented not horizontally, but vertically. It's about about

Poems The genre of the poem is one of Lermontov’s favorites in his work. He wrote about 30 poems, completed and unfinished, not counting several editions of the same poem and poems that have not survived. These works differ in theme, plot and style. Some poems

Ledenev A. In Romantic stories of M. Gorky of the 1890s The work of early Gorky should not be reduced only to romanticism: in the 1890s. he created works that were both romantic and realistic in style (among the latter, for example, the stories “Beggar Woman”, “Chelkash”,

Poetry by K.F. Ryleeva

One of the brightest Decembrist poets of the younger generation was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev. His creative life did not last long - from the first student experiments of 1817–1819. until the last poem (beginning 1826), written in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Wide fame came to Ryleev after the publication of the ode-satire “To a Temporary Worker” (1820), which was written in a completely traditional spirit, but was distinguished by its bold content. Initially, in Ryleev’s poetry, poems of different genres and styles coexist in parallel - odes and elegies. The “rules” of the then literature weigh heavily on Ryleev. Civil and personal themes do not yet mix, although the ode, for example, takes on a new structure. Its theme is not the glorification of the monarch, not military valor, as was the case in 18th-century poetry, but ordinary civil service. The peculiarity of Ryleev’s lyrics lies in the fact that he not only inherits the traditions of civil poetry of the last century, but also assimilates the achievements of the new, romantic poetry of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, in particular the poetic style of Zhukovsky, using the same stable verse formulas. Gradually, however, civil and intimate streams in the poet’s lyrics begin to intersect: elegies and messages include civic motives, and ode and satire are imbued with personal sentiments. Genres and styles begin to mix. In other words, in the civil, or social, current of Russian romanticism, the same processes occur as in the psychological current. The hero of elegies and messages (genres that were traditionally devoted to the description of intimate experiences) is enriched with the traits of a public person (“V.N. Stolypina”, “On the Death of Beiron”). Civil passions receive the dignity of living personal emotions. This is how genre barriers collapse, and genre thinking suffers significant damage. This tendency is characteristic of the entire civil branch of Russian romanticism. Typical, for example, is Ryleev’s poem “Will I be at the fatal time...”. On the one hand, it has obvious features of ode and satire - high vocabulary (“fatal time”, “citizen san”), iconic references to the names of heroes of ancient and modern times (Brutus, Riego), contemptuous and accusatory expressions (“pampered tribe”) , oratorical, declamatory intonation, designed for oral pronunciation, for public speech addressed to the audience; on the other hand, an elegiac reflection imbued with sadness about the fact that the younger generation is not entering the civilian field. Duma. Since 1821, a new genre for Russian literature began to take shape in Ryleev’s work - duma, a lyric epic work similar to a ballad, based on real historical events, legends, devoid, however, of fantasy. Ryleev especially drew the attention of his readers to the fact that the duma is an invention of Slavic poetry, and that it existed as a folklore genre for a long time in Ukraine and Poland. In the preface to his collection “Dumas,” he wrote: “The Duma is an ancient heritage from our southern brothers, our Russian, native invention. The Poles took it from us. Even to this day, Ukrainians sing thoughts about their heroes: Doroshenko, Nechai, Sagaidachny, Paleya, and Mazepa himself is credited with composing one of them.” At the beginning of the 19th century. This genre of folk poetry has become widespread in literature. It was introduced into literature by the Polish poet Nemtsevich, to whom Ryleev referred in the same preface. However, not only folklore became the only tradition that influenced the literary genre of the Duma. In the duma one can distinguish the signs of a meditative and historical (epic) elegy, ode, hymn, etc. The poet published his first duma, “Kurbsky” (1821), with the subtitle “elegy”, and only starting with “Artemon Matveev” a new genre definition appears - duma . Many of his contemporaries saw similarities with elegy in Ryleev’s works. Thus, Belinsky wrote that “a thought is a funeral service for a historical event or simply a song of historical content. The Duma is almost the same as an epic elegy.” Critic P.A. Pletnev defined the new genre as “a lyrical story of some event.” Historical events are interpreted in Ryleev’s thoughts in a lyrical way: the poet is focused on expressing the internal state of a historical figure, as a rule, at some culminating moment in life. Compositionally, the thought is divided into two parts - a biography into a moral lesson that follows from this biography. The Duma combines two principles - epic and lyrical, hagiographic and agitational. Of these, the main one is lyrical, propaganda, and biography (hagiography) plays a subordinate role. Almost all thoughts, as Pushkin noted, are built according to the same plan: first, a landscape is given, local or historical, which prepares the appearance of the hero; then, with the help of a portrait, the hero is brought out and immediately makes a speech; from it the background of the hero and his current state of mind become known; What follows is a summary lesson. Since the composition of almost all thoughts is the same, Pushkin called Ryleev a “planner,” meaning the rationality and weakness of artistic invention. According to Pushkin, all thoughts come from German word dumm (stupid). Ryleev’s task was to give a broad panorama of historical life and create monumental images of historical heroes, but the poet solved it in a subjective, psychological, lyrical way. Its goal is to arouse the patriotism and love of freedom of his contemporaries through a high heroic example. A reliable depiction of the history and life of the heroes faded into the background. In order to talk about the hero’s life, Ryleev turned to the sublime language of civil poetry of the 18th - early 19th centuries, and to convey the hero’s feelings - to the poetic style of Zhukovsky (see, for example, in the Duma “Natalya Dolgorukaya”: “Fate gave me joy In my sad exile...", "And into the soul, compressed by melancholy, sweetness involuntarily shed"). The psychological state of the heroes, especially in a portrait, is almost always the same: the hero is depicted with nothing less than a thought on his forehead, he has the same poses and gestures. Ryleev's heroes most often sit, and even when they are brought to execution, they immediately sit down. The setting in which the hero is located is a dungeon or dungeon. Since the poet portrayed historical figures in his thoughts, he was faced with the problem of embodying a national-historical character - one of the central ones both in romanticism and in the literature of that time in general. Subjectively, Ryleev had no intention of encroaching on the accuracy of historical facts and “correcting” the spirit of history. Moreover, he strove to respect historical truth and relied on Karamzin’s “History of the Russian State.” For historical credibility, he attracted the historian P.M. Stroev, who wrote most of the prefaces and comments to the thoughts. And yet this did not save Ryleev from a too free view of history, from a peculiar, albeit unintentional, romantic-Decembrist anti-historicism. The genre of the Duma and the concept of romantic historicism of the Decembrists . As a romantic, Ryleev placed the personality of a freedom-loving patriot at the center of national history. History, from his point of view, is the struggle of freedom lovers against tyrants. The conflict between supporters of freedom and despots (tyrants) is the engine of history. The forces involved in a conflict never disappear or change. Ryleev and the Decembrists do not agree with Karamzin, who argued that the past century, having left history, never returns in the same forms. If this were so, the Decembrists, including Ryleev, decided, then the connection of times would have disintegrated, and patriotism and love of freedom would never have arisen again, because they would have lost their parental soil. As a result, love of freedom and patriotism as feelings are not only characteristic, for example, of the 12th and 19th centuries, but also identical. A historical figure of any past century is equated to a Decembrist in his thoughts and feelings (Princess Olga thinks like a Decembrist, talking about the “injustice of power”, the soldiers of Dimitri Donskoy are eager to fight “for freedom, truth and law”, Volynsky is the embodiment of civil courage). From here it is clear that, wanting to be faithful to history and historically accurate, Ryleev, regardless of personal intentions, violated historical truth. His historical heroes thought in Decembrist concepts and categories: the patriotism and love of freedom of the heroes and the author were no different. This means that he tried to make his heroes both as they were in history and as his contemporaries, thereby setting himself contradictory and, therefore, impossible tasks. Ryleev's anti-historicism caused a strong objection from Pushkin. Regarding the anachronism committed by the Decembrist poet (in the Duma “Oleg the Prophet”, Ryleev’s hero hung his shield with the coat of arms of Russia on the gates of Constantinople), Pushkin, pointing out a historical mistake, wrote: “... in Oleg’s time there was no Russian coat of arms - but the double-headed eagle is the coat of arms Byzantine and means the division of the empire into Western and Eastern ... ". Pushkin understood Ryleev well, who wanted to highlight Oleg’s patriotism, but did not forgive the violation of historical accuracy. Thus, the national historical character was not artistically recreated in the thoughts. However, Ryleev’s development as a poet went in this direction: in the thoughts “Ivan Susanin” and “Peter the Great in Ostrogozhsk” the epic moment was noticeably strengthened. The poet improved the conveyance of national color, achieving greater accuracy in describing the situation (“the window is askew” and other details), and his narrative style became stronger. And Pushkin immediately responded to these shifts in Ryleev’s poetry, noting the thoughts “Ivan Susanin”, “Peter the Great in Ostrogozhsk” and the poem “Voinarovsky”, in which he, without accepting the general plan and character of historical figures, especially Mazepa, appreciated the efforts Ryleev in the field of poetic storytelling.

Poem "Voinarovsky". The poem is one of the most popular genres of romanticism, including civil or social.

Ryleev's poem "Voinarovsky" (1825) was written in the spirit of the romantic poems of Byron and Pushkin. The basis of the romantic poem is the parallelism of pictures of nature, stormy or peaceful, and the experiences of an exiled hero, whose exclusivity is emphasized by his loneliness. The poem developed through a chain of episodes and monologue speeches hero. The role of female characters is always weakened compared to the hero. Contemporaries noted that the characteristics of the characters and some episodes were similar to the characteristics of the characters and scenes from Byron’s poems “The Giaour,” “Mazepa,” “The Corsair,” and “Parisina.” There is also no doubt that Ryleev took into account Pushkin’s poems “Prisoner of the Caucasus” and “ Bakhchisarai fountain", written much earlier. Ryleev's poem became one of the brightest pages in the development of the genre. This is explained by several circumstances. Firstly, the love plot, so important for a romantic poem, is relegated to the background and noticeably muted. There is no love conflict in the poem: there are no conflicts between the hero and his beloved. Voinarovsky's wife voluntarily follows her husband into exile. Secondly, the poem was distinguished by its accurate and detailed reproduction of pictures of the Siberian landscape and Siberian life, revealing to the Russian reader a largely unknown natural and everyday way of life. Ryleev consulted with the Decembrist V.I. Steingel about the objectivity of painted paintings. At the same time, the harsh Siberian nature and life are not alien to the exile: they corresponded to his rebellious spirit (“The noise of the forests was a joy to me, the bad weather was a joy to me, and the howling of the storm and the splashing of the shafts”). The hero was directly correlated with the natural element related to his moods and entered into complex relationships with it. Thirdly, and this is the most important thing: the originality of Ryleev’s poem lies in the unusual motivation for exile. In a romantic poem, the motivation for the hero’s alienation, as a rule, remains ambiguous, not entirely clear or mysterious. Voinarovsky ended up in Siberia not of his own free will, not as a result of disappointment, and not as an adventurer. He is a political exile, and his stay in Siberia is forced, determined by the circumstances of his tragic life. IN precise indication the reasons for the expulsion are Ryleev’s innovation. This both specified and narrowed the motivation for romantic alienation. Finally, fourthly, the plot of the poem is connected with historical events. The poet intended to emphasize the scale and drama of the personal destinies of the heroes - Mazepa, Voinarovsky and his wife, their love of freedom and patriotism. As a romantic hero, Voinarovsky is dual: he is depicted as a tyrant fighter, yearning for national independence, and a prisoner of fate (“Cruel fate promised me so”). In the process of evolution, the poem revealed a tendency towards epicness, towards the genre of a story in verse, evidence of which was the strengthening of the narrative style in the poem “Voinarovsky”. Pushkin noticed and approved him, especially praising Ryleev for his “sweeping style.” Pushkin saw in this Ryleev’s departure from the subjective lyrical style of writing. In a romantic poem, as a rule, a single lyrical tone dominated; events were colored by the author’s lyrics and were not of independent interest to the author. Ryleev broke this tradition and thereby contributed to the creation of verse and stylistic forms for objective depiction. His poetic quests responded to the thoughts of Pushkin and the needs of the development of Russian literature.

Romantic poem.

A romantic poem is a multi-part poetic work of large form, reflecting the ideological and artistic principles of the romantic worldview. A romantic poem is characterized by such a combination of lyrical and epic elements, in which the epic principle (realized in pictures of historical reality) is subordinate to the lyrical principle (realized in pictures of the inner world of the individual), which determines a free composition, the presence of various authorial digressions, a pronounced lyrical tone of the narrative and other characteristic features of this genre. The romantic poem developed intensively in the literature of the first third of the 19th century. V. G. Belinsky assessed the genre of the romantic poem as “a special kind of epic that does not allow the prose of life, which captures only poetic, ideal moments of life, the content of which constitutes the deepest worldviews and moral issues of modern humanity.” The romantic poem is perhaps the leading genre of romanticism. When they talk about a romantic hero, they most often mean the hero of such a poem, since the peculiarity of this lyric-epic genre is the presence of a detailed plot, and with it the formation of a new type of hero. I. G. Neupokoeva speaks about the genre of the poem as leading in the era of romanticism in the book “Revolutionary romantic poem of the 1st half. XIX century". She notes that each literary era has its own dominant genres and their specific system. One of the first signs of a change in literary eras are significant changes in the artistic structure of its main genres and their system. The transformation of the genre of the poem at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries, the gradual overcoming of the classicistic features characteristic of it in the previous era, gave this genre enormous opportunities in the conditions of artistic development of the 19th century. The break with classicist norms allowed the “free poem” to absorb the most important socio-philosophical, moral and historical problems of its era. The access to a free structure allowed the poem to widely incorporate the discoveries of other poetic genres (primarily small lyrical forms and poetic drama). I.G. Neupokoeva identifies two dominant types of poem: lyrical-epic and philosophical-symbolic. Each of these types has its own history, its own national and European peaks. They are “not closed in on themselves, not fenced off from one another by an impassable line.” The appearance of the lyric-epic poem was the true beginning new era in the history of European literature. The development of this genre can be dated back to the 10th – 20th years of the 19th century. Such are “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” by Byron, “Hellas” by Shelley, “Voinarovsky” by Ryleev, “Grazhin” by Mickiewicz, “The Last Son of Liberty” by Lermontov. We can talk about the presence within the lyric-epic poem of the romantics of several genre forms, marked by a stable artistic structure. A comparative analysis of the lyric-epic poem allows us to clearly see such genre forms(each of which has its own distinct artistic structure), such as: the so-called “oriental poem”, monody poem, hymn and national heroic poem. The philosophical and symbolic poem is a complex “alloy” of borrowings from historical traditions and legends, from mythology and its poetic adaptations. Examples include “Queen Mab” by Shelley and “Cain” by Byron. It merges different streams of romantic poetry - anthemic and satirical, highly pathetic and heartfeltly personal. As Neupokoeva notes, a new system of “universal” poetic imagery is being created. In each of the national literatures, preference is given to the material that was most familiar to its poetic tradition. In England, this is the tradition of the genre of vision and social utopia, dating back to William Langland and Thomas More, an appeal to biblical images, which here became a national artistic tradition after Paradise Lost, as well as a free interpretation of ancient myths. There is every reason to talk about the philosophical and symbolic poem of the romantics as a specific artistic whole. At the same time, here, as in the lyric-epic poem, one can see both the internal differentiation of the genre and the stages of its development. A comparative examination allows us to distinguish between such genre forms of philosophical and symbolic poem as cosmological, tragic and lyrical-symphonic. For example, the cosmological poem is most clearly represented in English literature. In particular, Blake’s “Marriage of Heaven and Hell”, “Prophetic Books”, and tragic poems - by Byron, Mickiewicz, Lermontov.

The work of I. Krylov in the first quarter of the 19th century. Fables, their classification, artistic method, problems.

The work of I. Krylov in the first quarter of the 19th century. Having finished his publishing activities, Krylov for a long time wandered around the Russian provinces. But with the accession of Alexander in 1801, everything changed. Gradually he stopped writing for the theater and from 1806. Krylov completely switches to fables. In 1808, he published 17 fables, including the famous “The Elephant and the Pug.” In 1809, the first collection of his fables was published. If at first Krylov’s work was dominated by translations or adaptations of La Fontaine’s famous fables (“The Dragonfly and the Ant,” “The Wolf and the Lamb”), then gradually he began to find more and more independent plots, many of which were related to topical events in Russian life. Thus, the fables “Quartet”, “Swan, Pike and Cancer”, “Wolf in the Kennel” became a reaction to various political events. The writer, who at one time laughed at Karamzin for his predilection for overly popular expressions, now himself created works that were understandable to everyone, and became a truly popular writer. With his fables, living folk speech entered Russian literature. A fable is a poetic or prosaic literary work of a moralizing, satirical nature. At the end of the fable there is a short moralizing conclusion - the so-called morality. Fables can be poetic or prosaic. An example of the former is the fables of Jean de La Fontaine, I.A. Krylova, S. Mikhalkova and others; secondly, the ancient fables of Aesop, Phaedrus, etc. Fables can also be divided into “animal” and “everyday”. In the first, the heroes are various animals, in the second - objects, people or mythological characters. The artistic method is the principle (method) of selecting the phenomena of reality, the features of their assessment and the originality of their artistic embodiment. In his fables, Krylov forms realism as an artistic method, i.e. artistic method is realistic. According to their themes, Krylov’s fables can be divided into

1. socio-political (“Lion on the hunt”; “Elephant on the voivodeship”; “Fish dance”)

2. moral and philosophical (“Dragonfly and Ant”; “Gardener and Philosopher”; “Leaves and Roots”)

3. social and domestic (“Elephant and Moska”; “Pig under the Oak”).

Creativity of A. Griboyedov. "Woe from Wit" as the first realistic comedy.

In 1815, his poetic comedy in one act “Young Spouses” was published and staged - an adaptation of the play by the French playwright Creuset de Lesser. In 1817, in collaboration with P.A. Katenin, Griboedov wrote the comedy “Student”, and together with A.A. Shakhovsky and N.I. Khmelnitsky - the comedy “One’s Own Family, or The Married Bride” (the beginning of the second act belongs to Griboedov’s pen). The comedy “Feigned Infidelity” (a free translation of the comedy by the French playwright Barthes “Les fausses infidelites”), written together with A. A. Gendre, was staged on the stages of Moscow and St. Petersburg in 1818. Participation in the work on these everyday plays was a test of strength for the young playwright before starting work on his main work - in the second half of the 1810s. The idea for the comedy “Woe from Wit” was taking shape. Making a Comedy: The plan of the work is connected with the political sentiments of Russian society after the War of 1812. In St. Petersburg, where Griboyedov lives, secret societies are organized (“Green Lamp”, “Union of Salvation”). First 1820s Griboyedov serves in the Caucasus as secretary for foreign affairs. Here he begins to work on a future comedy. In June 1824, the text of the comedy was ready. Fearing the capital's censorship, Griboedov goes to St. Petersburg: reads his play in literary circles, reworks it and improves it. Comedy becomes an event. "Woe from Wit" as the first realistic comedy. The main feature of realism is the depiction of typical characters in typical circumstances. “Woe from Wit” fully meets this basic requirement of realism. By typifying the image, Griboyedov gives each comedy character personality traits and properties. In the comedy, the playwright realistically and convincingly showed the tense situation in noble society, depicting the main conflict of his time - the clash of conservative nobles with new forces in the person of Chatsky.

System of characters in the comedy "Woe from Wit". The image of the main character. Pushkin and Goncharov about Griboyedov’s comedy.

Griboedov is an innovator of his time. Departing from the canons of classicism, he exceeds the permissible number of characters. In addition, a large number of off-stage characters are introduced into the comedy, the number of which exceeds the stage ones, which is also an innovation for a classic work. We can divide all the images in the comedy into three groups: the main characters - they participate in a personal conflict (Sofya, Silent, Chatsky, Famusov and Lisa), secondary and off-stage. The second group includes guests of the Famusov dance evening. The third includes all off-stage characters, which we learn about from the dialogues of the characters on stage. Also, the heroes can be divided into two large camps - representatives of the “past century” and representatives of the “present century”. The first and most prominent representative of the “past century” is Famusov. A serf-owning gentleman, “like all Moscow people,” who dreams of getting a son-in-law “with stars and ranks” for his daughter. Service for Famusov, as for all representatives of noble Moscow, is only a means of moving up the career ladder. His daughter Sophia stands out among other people. Carried away by reading French novels, she imagines herself as their heroine. That is why there are many psychological motives in her speech. Molchalin-.a bright representative of Famus society. The goal of his life is to be in the right place at the right time, and most importantly, to follow his father’s precepts: “to please all people without exception.” Every word and step he takes is thought out. He skillfully pretends to be the lover of his master’s daughter, although he himself has sympathy for the maid Liza (“Her position, you...”). Plays an important role Lisa, Sophia's maid, a smart, lively, lively girl. On the one hand, she is a soubrette (a traditional role of classicism) and helps her mistress arrange love dates. In addition, Lisa is the second reasoner on stage. She gives apt characteristics to the heroes: “Who is so sensitive, and cheerful, and sharp, like Alexander Andreich Chatsky" The secondary characters are presented in the third act of the comedy at Famusov's dance party. They complement the picture of the Moscow nobility. A striking example of militaryism and Arakcheevism is Colonel Skalozub, in whose image military careerism and passion for drill are exposed. Next, we see a whole gallery of representatives of the Moscow nobility. These are the Gorichi, who are a typical noble family. This is Prince Tugoukhovsky with his wife and six dowry-free daughters, who travels to balls in search of suitors. These are Countess Khryumina: the countess-granddaughter is an old maid, always dissatisfied with everything, and her grandmother, who no longer sees or hears anything, but stubbornly attends entertaining evenings. This is the “fraudster, rogue” Zagoretsky, who found “protection from court” in best houses Moscow. Finally, the comedy contains a large number of off-stage characters, the number of which exceeds the number of stage characters, which is a violation of the canons of classicism. The role of these characters is great: they expand both the temporal and spatial boundaries of the comedy. It is thanks to them that Griboyedov manages to cover the period of time from Empress Catherine II to the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Like all stage works, they can be divided into two opposing camps - the “past century” and the “present century”. Image Chatzkog o - Griboedov's main discovery. In Russian literature, it is with Chatsky that the line of the hero-fighter, the hero-Protestant begins. In the image of Chatsky, Griboedov, for the first time in Russian literature, showed a “new man”, inspired by sublime ideas, rebelling against a reactionary society in defense of freedom, humanity, intelligence and culture, cultivating a new morality, developing a new view of the world and human relations. Alexander Andreevich Chatsky is a young man, a nobleman. Chatsky's parents died early, and he was brought up in the house of Famusov, a friend of his late father. Chatsky is not only smart, but also a developed person, with feeling. Chatsky passionately loves his homeland, but not the state of kings, landowners and officials, but people's Russia, with its powerful forces, cherished traditions, intelligence and hard work. He believes that it is necessary to serve "to the cause, not to the persons." Chatsky defends the right of a person to freely choose his own activities: travel, live in the countryside, “focus his mind” on science or devote himself to “creative, high and beautiful arts,” so Famusov declares Chatsky a dangerous person who does not recognize the authorities. Chatsky's personal drama is his unrequited love for Sophia. Sophia, with all her good spiritual inclinations, still entirely belongs to Famus's world. One of the main distinguishing properties of Chatsky is the fullness of feelings. It manifested itself both in the way he loves and in the way he is angry and hates. In everything he shows true passion, he is always warm at heart. He is ardent, sharp, smart, eloquent, full of life, impatient. He is the embodiment of good youth, honesty, gullibility, and youthful boundless faith in himself and his capabilities. These qualities make him open to mistakes and vulnerable. About the essence of the comedy “Woe from Wit,” Pushkin wrote: “Griboyedov’s goal is characters and a sharp picture of morals. In this respect, Famusov and Skalozub are excellent. Sophia is not clearly depicted: either ... or a Moscow cousin. Molchalin is not quite sharply mean.” Wasn’t it necessary to make him a coward? An old spring, but a civilian coward in the big world between Chatsky and Skalozub could be very funny. Sick conversations, gossip, Repetilov’s story about the klob, Zagoretsky, notorious and accepted everywhere - these are the features of a truly comic. genius.? And Pushkin also said: “I don’t talk about poetry - half of it should go into proverbs.” Goncharov described this work in the article “A Million of Torments.” An article by the literary critic I.A. Goncharov about the play by A.S. “Woe from Wit” is one of the most famous and accurate assessments of this work. Overall, I.A. Goncharov evaluates the play as an immortal work in which problems that are relevant in all times and peoples were raised. The only image of the play, according to the critic, that remains open is the image of Chatsky. It can be adjusted and discussed for a long time.

Report 7th grade.

Poem (from Greek - to create) is a lyrical-epic genre of literature, the narration of historical events and events in the lives of heroes is revealed in it through the perception and assessment of the narrator; a large poetic work with a plot and narrative organization.

In Pushkin's work, poems occupy the largest place along with lyrics. Pushkin wrote twelve poems (one of them, “Tazit,” remained unfinished), and more than twelve more were preserved in sketches, plans, and initial lines.

In his work of this time, the theme of the Russian state, the fate of Russia in the struggle with the West for its independence is embodied - an echo of Pushkin’s youthful memories of the events of 1812-1815. In parallel with this, he poetically develops the most important theme of the multinationality of the Russian state, writes about the historical pattern of uniting many people into one state whole. various peoples. In the poem “Poltava” these themes are developed on the historical material of the struggle of Russia at the beginning of the 18th century with the then strongest military state - Sweden. Here Pushkin poetically reveals his assessment of the relationship between Russia and Ukraine.

Speaking in “Rebuttal to Critics” about the plan of “Poltava”, Pushkin noted that the first thought of this poem came to him while reading K. F. Ryleev’s poem “Voinarovsky” (1825): “Having read these verses for the first time in “Voinarovsky”:

The wife of the sufferer Kochubey

And the daughter seduced by him

I was amazed how the poet could pass by such a terrible circumstance.”

In Ryleev’s poems, quoted by Pushkin (and in “Poltava”), Mazepa is included in the human world, personal relationships. Both poets hold him responsible for his actions and their consequences, present the hetman with their account for his behavior in big and small, both in history and in private life. “The wife of the sufferer Kochubey” and her unfortunate daughter stand on a par with the Ukrainian hetman and are recognized by Pushkin as historical witnesses and accusers in his case. Behind them emerge the contours of the theme of historical and personal, at the same time moral responsibility of a person for his actions.

Pushkin in Poltava, turning to historical events, states: it is not the blind force of fate and chance that plays a decisive role in history; for historical and moral assessment Peter I and Charles XII, Mazepa and Kochubey, there are objective, historical and moral criteria. It is true that yesterday's winner may fall today: but usually in history this is the result not of a fatal accident, but of a pattern hidden behind it; The outcome of the struggle is ultimately determined by the moral character of the fighting parties, their ability to take into account the lessons of history, the historical and personal motives of their actions. It was them that Pushkin sought to reveal in his poem, where he showed that the defeat of Charles XII near Poltava was an inevitable consequence of the Russian people and state reaching historical maturity, a consequence of the moral superiority of Peter and his “chicks” over Charles XII and Mazepa, not simple result games of fate, deceit and infidelity of people obediently following the winner.

Not only in big world, in history, according to Pushkin, moral forces dominate (and not blind chance). The same applies to the small world - to the personal lives of people. Not only as historical figures, but also as private individuals, from his point of view, people bear responsibility both to themselves and to others for their actions, and therefore are subject not only to aesthetic, but also to ethical and moral judgment. This applies equally to all characters in “Poltava” - not only to Peter and Charles XII, but also to Mazepa, Kochubey, Maria, and even to her unnamed fiancé, sent by Kochubey as a messenger to Peter.

Thus, both the historical and private lives of the heroes are introduced by Pushkin in Poltava into a broad moral perspective.

Pushkin completed a long series of poems written from 1820 to 1833 with “ Bronze Horseman" - a poem about the conflict between the happiness of an individual and the good of the state - his best work, remarkable both for the extraordinary depth and courage of thought, the acuteness of the poet’s historical and social problem, and in the perfection of artistic expression. This work still causes controversy and different interpretations.

Pushkin used many genres in his work, but the poem always remained his favorite form for expressing his “mind of cold observations and heart of sorrowful observations.” Pushkin celebrated almost every stage of his development with a poem, almost every one that stood before him life problems found expression in the poem. The enormous distance between the light, brilliant poem of the twenty-year-old Pushkin - “Ruslan and Lyudmila” - and the deeply philosophical poem “The Bronze Horseman”, written by the thirty-four-year-old sage-poet, clearly shows the swiftness of Pushkin’s path, the steepness of the peak to which Pushkin, and with him the whole world, climbed. Russian literature.

Questions about the report:

1) What is a poem? What are the features of the poem as a genre?

2) How many poems were created by A.S. Pushkin?

3) What themes are developed in the poem by A.S. Pushkin "Poltava"?

4) Who, according to A.S. Pushkin, responsible for certain events?

5) Which poem was the last in the work of A.S. Pushkin?

6) What is the peculiarity of the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman"?

POEM (Greek poiema, from Greek poieo - I create), large shape poetic work in epic, lyric or lyric-epic genre. Poems from different eras and from different peoples, in general, are not the same in their genre characteristics, however, they have some common features: the subject of the image in them is, as a rule, a certain era, certain events, certain experiences of an individual person. Unlike poems, in a poem directly (in the heroic and satirical types) or indirectly
(in the lyrical type) social ideals are proclaimed or evaluated; they are almost always plot-driven, and even in lyric poems thematically isolated fragments are combined into a single epic narrative.
Poems are the earliest surviving monuments ancient writing. They were and are original “encyclopedias”, when accessing which you can learn about gods, rulers and heroes, get acquainted with the initial stage of the history of the nation, as well as its mythological prehistory, comprehend the inherent to this people way of philosophizing. These are the early examples of epic poems in many national literatures: in India - the folk epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana", in Greece - "Iliad" and "Odyssey" by Homer, in Rome - "Aeneid" by Virgil.
In Russian literature of the early 20th century, there was a tendency to transform a lyric-epic poem into a purely lyrical poem. Already in A. A. Blok’s poem “The Twelve,” both lyrical-epic and lyrical motifs clearly appear. The early poems of V. V. Mayakovsky (“Cloud in Pants”) also hide the epic plot behind the alternation of different types lyrical statements. This tendency will manifest itself especially clearly later, in A. A. Akhmatova’s poem “Requiem”.

VARIETIES OF POEM GENRE

EPIC POEM is one of the oldest types of epic works. Since antiquity, this type of poem has focused on the depiction of heroic events, taken, most often, from the distant past. These events were usually significant, epoch-making, influencing the course of national and general history. Examples of the genre include: “The Iliad” and “Odyssey” by Homer, “The Song of Roland”, “The Song of the Nibelungs”, “The Furious Roland” by Ariosto, “Jerusalem Liberated” by Tasso, etc. The epic genre has almost always been a heroic genre. For his sublimity and citizenship, many writers and poets recognized him as the crown of poetry.
Main character in an epic poem there is always a historical person. As a rule, he is an example of decency, an example of a person with high moral qualities.
The events in which the hero of the epic poem is involved, according to unwritten rules, must have national, universal significance. But the artistic depiction of events and characters in an epic poem is only in the general form must be correlated with historical facts and persons.
Classicism, which dominated in fiction for many centuries, did not set out to reflect true history and the characters of real, historical persons. Turning to the past was determined solely by the need to comprehend the present. Starting from a specific historical fact, event, person, the poet gave him new life.
Russian classicism has always adhered to this view of the features of the heroic poem, although it has somewhat transformed it. In Russian literature of the 18th and 19th centuries, two views emerged on the question of the relationship between the historical and the artistic in a poem. Their exponents were the authors of the first epic poems Trediakovsky (“Tilemakhida”) and Lomonosov (“Peter the Great”). These poems confronted Russian poets with the need to choose one of two paths when working on a poem. The type of Lomonosov's poem, despite its incompleteness, was clear. It was a heroic poem about one of the most important events in Russian history, a poem in which the author sought to reproduce historical truth.
The type of Trediakovsky's poem, despite its completeness, was much less clear, except for the metrical form, where the poet proposed a Russified hexameter. Trediakovsky attached historical truth of secondary importance. He defended the idea of ​​reflecting “fabulous or ironic times” in the poem, focusing on Homer’s epics, which, according to Trediakovsky, were not and could not be created in hot pursuit of events.
Russian poets of the 19th century followed the path of Lomonosov, not Trediakovsky. (“Dimitriada” by Sumarokov and “Liberated Moscow” by Maykov, as well as Kheraskov’s poems “Chesma Battle” and “Rossiada”).

DESCRIPTIVE POEMS originate from the ancient poems of Hesiod and Virgil. These poems became widespread in the 18th century. The main theme of this type of poem is mainly pictures of nature.
The descriptive poem has a rich tradition in Western European literature of all eras and becomes one of the leading genres of sentimentalism. It made it possible to capture a variety of feelings and experiences, the ability of the individual to respond to the smallest changes in nature, which has always been an indicator of the spiritual value of the individual.
In Russian literature, however, the descriptive poem did not become the leading genre, since sentimentalism was most fully expressed in prose and landscape lyrics. The function of a descriptive poem was largely taken over by prose genres - landscape sketches and descriptive sketches (“Walk”, “Village” by Karamzin, landscape sketches in “Letters of a Russian Traveler”).
Descriptive poetry includes a whole range of themes and motifs: society and solitude, urban and rural life, virtue, charity, friendship, love, feelings of nature. These motifs, varying in all works, become an identifying mark of the psychological appearance of a modern sensitive person.
Nature is perceived not as a decorative background, but as a person’s ability to feel part of the natural world of nature. What comes to the fore is “the feeling evoked by the landscape, not nature itself, but the reaction of a person capable of perceiving it in his own way.” The ability to capture the subtlest reactions of a person to outside world attracted sentimentalists to the genre of descriptive poem.
Descriptive poems that survived until the beginning of the 19th century were the predecessors of the “romantic” poems of Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov and other great poets.

A DIDACTIC POEM is adjacent to descriptive poems and most often is a treatise poem (example “ Poetic art» Boileau XVII century).
Already in the early stages of antiquity great value was given not only the entertaining, but also the didactic function of poetry. The artistic structure and style of didactic poetry go back to the heroic epic. The main meters were initially dactylic hexameter, later elegiac distich. Due to the genre specificity, the range of topics of didactic poetry was unusually wide and covered various scientific disciplines, philosophy, and ethics. Other examples of didactic poetry include the works of Hesiod “Theogony” - an epic poem about the history of the origin of the world and the gods - and “Works and Days” - a poetic narrative about agriculture, containing a significant didactic element.
In the 6th century BC didactic poems by Phocylides and Theognis appeared; such philosophers as Xenophanes, Parmenides, Empedocles presented their teachings in poetic form. In the 5th century, not poetry, but prose took a leading place in didactic literature. A new rise in didactic poetry began during the Hellenistic period, when it seemed tempting to use the artistic form to present scientific ideas. The choice of material was determined not so much by the depth of the author’s knowledge in a particular field of knowledge, but rather by his desire to tell in as much detail as possible about little-studied problems: Arat (the didactic poem “Phenomena”, containing information about astronomy), Nikandr
(2 small didactic poems about remedies against poisons). Examples of didactic poetry are poems about the structure of the earth by Dionysius Periegetes, about fishing- Oppian, about astrology - Dorotheus of Sidon.
Even before their acquaintance with Greek didactic poetry, the Romans had their own didactic works (for example, treatises on agriculture), but they were early influenced artistic media Greek didactic poetry. Appeared Latin translations Hellenistic authors (Ennius, Cicero). The largest original works are the philosophical poem “On the Nature of Things” by Lucretius Cara, which is a presentation of the materialistic teachings of Epicurus, and Virgil’s epic poem “Georgics”, in which he, taking into account the disastrous state agriculture Italy due to civil war, poeticizes the peasant way of life and praises the work of the farmer. Based on the model of Hellenistic poetry, Ovid’s poem “Fasti” was written - a poetic story about ancient rituals and legends included in the Roman calendar - and its variations on an erotic theme, containing an element of didactics. Didactic poetry was also used to spread Christian doctrine: Commodianus (“Instructions to Pagans and Christians”). The genre of didactic poetry existed until modern times. In Byzantium, for better memorization, many textbooks were written in poetic form.
(Dictionary of Antiquity)

ROMANTIC POEM

Romantic writers in their works poeticized such states of the soul as love and friendship, the melancholy of unrequited love and disappointment in life, going into loneliness, etc. With all this, they expanded and enriched the poetic perception of the inner world of a person, finding corresponding art forms.
The sphere of romanticism is “the entire inner, soulful life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from where all vague aspirations for the best and sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy,” wrote Belinsky.
Authors, carried away by the emerging trend, created new ones literary genres, giving scope for the expression of personal moods (lyric-epic poem, ballad, etc.). The compositional originality of their works was expressed in the rapid and unexpected change of paintings, in lyrical digressions, in the reticence in the narrative, in the mystery of the images that intrigue readers.
Russian romanticism was influenced by various movements of Western European romanticism. But its emergence in Russia is the fruit of national social development. V. A. Zhukovsky is rightly called the founder of Russian romanticism. His poetry amazed his contemporaries with its novelty and unusualness (the poems “Svetlana”, “The Twelve Sleeping Virgins”).
He continued the romantic direction in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin. In 1820, the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” was published, on which Pushkin worked for three years. The poem is a synthesis of the poet's early poetic quests. With his poem, Pushkin entered into creative competition with Zhukovsky as the author of magically romantic poems written in a mystical spirit.
Pushkin's interest in history intensified in connection with the publication in 1818 of the first eight volumes of Karamzin's History of the Russian State. The collection “Ancient Russian Poems” by Kirsha Danilov and collections of fairy tales also served as material for Pushkin’s poem. Later he added to the poem the famous prologue “By the Lukomorye there is a green oak”, written in 1828, giving a poetic summary of Russian fairy-tale motifs. “Ruslan and Lyudmila” is a new step in the development of the poem genre, notable for its new, romantic depiction of a person.
Travel to the Caucasus and Crimea left deep trace in the works of Pushkin. At this time, he became acquainted with the poetry of Byron and the “eastern stories” of the famous Englishman served as a model for Pushkin’s “southern poems” (“Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “The Robber Brothers”, “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, “Gypsies”, 1820 - 1824). At the same time, Pushkin compresses and clarifies the narrative, enhances the concreteness of the landscape and everyday sketches, complicates the hero’s psychology, and makes him more purposeful.
V. A. Zhukovsky’s translation of “The Prisoner of Chillon” (1820) and Pushkin’s “southern poems” open the way for numerous followers: “prisoners”, “harem passions”, “robbers”, etc. are multiplying. However, the most original poets of Pushkin’s time find their genre moves: I. I. Kozlov (“Chernets”, 1824) chooses a lyrical-confessional version with a symbolic sound, K. F. Ryleev (“Voinarovsky”, 1824) politicizes the Byronic canon, etc.
Against this background, Lermontov’s late poems “The Demon” and “Mtsyri” look miraculously, which are rich in Caucasian folklore, and which can be put on a par with “The Bronze Horseman”. But Lermontov began with simple-minded imitations of Byron and Pushkin. His “Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich...” (1838) closes the Byronic plot into the forms of Russian folklore (epic, historical song, lamentations, skomoroshina).
One can also include Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov (1787 – 1855) as a Russian romantic poet. His main work is considered to be the romantic poem “The Dying Tass”. This poem can be called an elegy, but the topic raised in it is too global for an elegy, as it contains many historical details. This elegy was created in 1817. Torquato Tasso was Batyushkov’s favorite poet. Batyushkov considered this elegy his best work, the epigraph to the elegy was taken from the last act of Tasso's tragedy "King Torisimondo".

A ballad is one of the types of romantic poem. In Russian literature, the appearance of this genre is associated with the tradition of sentimentalism and romanticism late XVIII- beginning of the 19th century. The first Russian ballad is considered to be “Gromval” by G. P. Kamenev, but the ballad gained particular popularity thanks to V. A. Zhukovsky. “The Balladeer” (according to Batyushkov’s playful nickname) made the best ballads of Goethe, Schiller, Walter Scott and other authors available to the Russian reader. The “ballad” tradition did not die out throughout the 19th century. Ballads were written by Pushkin ("The Song of the Prophetic Oleg", "The Drowned Man", "Demons"), Lermontov (" Airship", "Mermaid"), A. Tolstoy.
After realism became the main trend in Russian literature, the ballad as a poetic form fell into decline. This genre continued to be used only by fans of “pure art” (A. Tolstoy) and symbolists (Bryusov). In modern Russian literature, one can note the revival of the ballad genre by updating its themes (ballads by N. Tikhonov, S. Yesenin). These authors drew plots for their works from the events of the recent past - the civil war.

PHILOSOPHICAL POEM

A philosophical poem is a genre of philosophical literature. The earliest examples of this genre include the poems of Parmenides and Empedocles. Presumably, early Orphic poems can also be attributed to them.
A. Pope's philosophical poems “Essays on Morals” and “Essay on Man” were very popular in the 18th century.
In the 19th century, philosophical poems were written by the Austrian romantic poet Nikolaus Lenau and the French philosopher and political economist Pierre Leroux. The philosophical poem “Queen Mab” (1813), the first significant poetic work of P.B., received well-deserved fame. Shelley. Philosophical poems also include poems written by Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), the grandfather of Charles Darwin. Among the philosophical poems created in the 19th century by Russian poets, M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “The Demon” stands out.

HISTORICAL POEM

Historical poem - lyric-epic folklore works about specific historical events, processes and historical persons. The historical specificity of the content is an important basis for distinguishing historical poems into a separate group, which, according to structural features, is a combination of various genres associated with history.
Forefather historical poem can be considered Homer. His panoramic works “Odyssey” and “Iliad” are among the most important and for a long time the only sources of information about the period that followed the Mycenaean era in Greek history.
In Russian literature, the most famous historical poems include the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Poltava”, B. And Bessonov’s poem “Khazars”, T. G. Shevchenko’s poem “Gamalia”.
Among the poets of the Soviet period working in the genre of historical poems, we can note Sergei Yesenin, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Nikolai Aseev, Boris Pasternak, Dmitry Kedrin and Konstantin Simonov. The search and success of the genre in the post-war decades are associated with the names of Nikolai Zabolotsky, Pavel Antokolsky, Vasily Fedorov, Sergei Narovchatov and other poets whose works are known far beyond Russia.

In addition to the above types of poems, one can also distinguish poems: lyrical-psychological (“Anna Snegina”), heroic (“Vasily Terkin”), moral-social, satirical, comic, playful and others.

Structure and plot construction of a work of art

In the classical version, any work of art (including a poem) distinguishes the following parts:
- prologue
- exposition
- string
- development
- climax
- epilogue
Let's look at each of these structural parts separately.

1. PROLOGUE
The beginning is more than half of everything.
Aristotle
Prologue is the introductory (initial) part of a literary-artistic, literary-critical, journalistic work, which anticipates the general meaning or main motives of the work. The prologue can briefly summarize the events that precede the main content.
In narrative genres (novel, story, poem, short story, etc.), the prologue is always a kind of background to the plot, and in literary criticism, journalism and other documentary genres can be perceived as a preface. It must be remembered that main function prologue - convey the events that prepare the main action.

A prolog is needed if:

1. The author wants to start the story in a calm tone, gradually, and then make a sharp transition to the dramatic events that will happen next. In this case, several phrases are inserted into the prologue, hinting at the climax, but, of course, not revealing it.

2. The author wants to give a complete panorama of previous events - what actions and when were committed by the main character before and what came of it. This type of prologue allows for a leisurely, sequential narrative with a detailed presentation of exposition.
In this case, a maximum time gap is allowed between the prologue and the main narrative, a gap that functions as a pause, and the exposition becomes minimal and serves only those events that give impetus to the action, and not the entire work.

You need to remember that:

The prologue should not be the first episode of the story, forcibly cut off from it.
- the events of the prologue should not duplicate the events of the initial episode. These events should generate intrigue precisely in combination with it.
- a mistake is to create an intriguing prologue that is not connected with the beginning, either by time, or place, or characters, or idea. The connection between the prologue and the beginning of the story may be explicit, it may be hidden, but it must be there.

2. EXPOSITION

Exposition is a depiction of the arrangement of characters and circumstances before the main action that should take place in a poem or other epic work. Accuracy in defining characters and circumstances is the main advantage of exposition.

Exposure functions:

Determine the place and time of the events described,
- introduce the characters,
- show the circumstances that will be the prerequisites for the conflict.

Exposition volume

According to the classical scheme, about 20% of the total volume of the work is allocated to exposition and plotting. But in fact, the volume of the exhibition depends entirely on the author’s intention. If the plot develops rapidly, sometimes a couple of lines are enough to introduce the reader to the essence of the matter, but if the plot of the work is drawn out, then the introduction takes up a much larger volume.
Recently, the requirements for exposure, unfortunately, have changed somewhat. Many modern editors require that exposition begin with a dynamic and exciting scene involving the main character.

Types of exposure

There are many different ways of exhibiting. However, ultimately, they can all be divided into two main, fundamentally various types- direct and indirect exposure.

In the case of direct exposition, the reader is introduced to the course of the matter, as they say, head-on and with complete frankness.

A striking example of direct exposition is the monologue of the main character with which the work begins.

Indirect exposure is formed gradually, consisting of a multitude of accumulating information. The viewer receives them in a veiled form; they are given as if by accident, unintentionally.

One of the tasks of the exposition is to prepare the appearance of the main character (or characters).
In the vast majority of cases, there is no main character in the first episode, and this is due to the following considerations.
The fact is that with the appearance of the main character, the tension of the narrative intensifies, it becomes more intense and rapid. The possibilities for any detailed explanation, if not disappearing, are, in any case, sharply decreasing. This is what forces the author to delay introducing the main character. The hero must immediately attract the reader's attention. And here the most reliable way is to introduce the hero when the reader has already become interested in him from the stories of other characters and is now eager to get to know him better.
Thus, the exposure in general outline outlines the main character, hints whether he is good or bad. But in no case should the author reveal his image to the end.
The exposition of the work prepares the plot with which it is inextricably linked, because
realizes the conflicting possibilities inherent and noticeably developed in the exhibition.

3. TIE

Who buttoned the first button incorrectly
It won't fasten properly anymore.
Goethe.
The plot is an image of the emerging contradictions that begin the development of events in the work. This is the moment from which the plot begins to move. In other words, the plot is an important event where the hero is given a certain task that he must or is forced to complete. What kind of event this will be depends on the genre of the work. This could be the discovery of a corpse, the kidnapping of a hero, a message that the Earth is about to hit some celestial body etc.
At the outset, the author presents key idea and begins to develop intrigue.
Most often, the premise is banal. It is very, very difficult to come up with something original - all the stories have already been invented before us. Each genre has its own cliches and hackneyed techniques. The author's task is to make an original intrigue out of a standard situation.
There can be several plots - as many as the author has set up plot lines. These ties can be scattered throughout the text, but they all must have development, not hang in the air and end with a denouement.

4. First paragraph (first verse)

You should grab the reader by the throat in the first paragraph,
in the second - squeeze harder and hold it against the wall
until the last line.

Paul O'Neill. American writer.

5. Plot development

The beginning of the development of the plot is usually given by the plot. In the development of events, connections and contradictions between people reproduced by the author are revealed, various features human characters, the history of the formation and growth of the characters is conveyed.
Usually in the middle of the work are placed the events that occur in the work of art from the beginning to the climax. Exactly what the author wants to say with his poem, story, story. Here the storylines develop, the conflict gradually increases, and the technique of creating internal tension is used.
The easiest way to create internal tension is the so-called creation of anxiety. The hero finds himself in a dangerous situation, and then the author either brings the danger closer or delays it.

Techniques for increasing tension:

1. Frustrated expectation
The narrative is constructed in such a way that the reader is quite sure that some event is about to occur, while the author unexpectedly (but justifiably) turns the action onto a different path, and instead of the expected event, another occurs.

3. Recognition
The character seeks to learn something (which is usually already known to the reader). If fate significantly depends on recognition actor, then dramatic tension can arise due to this.

Along with the main storyline, in almost every work there are also secondary lines, the so-called “subplots”. In novels there are more of them, but in a poem or short story there may not be any subplots. Subplots are used to more fully develop the theme and character of the main character.

The construction of subplots also obeys certain laws, namely:

Every subplot should have a beginning, middle and end.

Subplot lines should be fused with plot lines. The subplot should move the main plot forward, and if this does not happen, then it is not needed

There should not be many subplots (1-2 in a poem or story, no more than 4 in a novel).

6. Climax

The Latin word "culmen" means peak, highest point. In any work, the climax is the episode in which the highest tension is achieved, that is, the most emotionally affecting moment, to which the logic of constructing a story, poem, or novel leads. There may be several climaxes throughout large essay. Then one of them is the main one (it is sometimes called central or general), and the rest are “local”.

7. Denouement. Final. Epilogue

The denouement resolves the depicted conflict or leads to an understanding of certain possibilities for its resolution. This is that point at the end of the sentence, that event that should finally clarify everything and after which the work can be completed.
The denouement of any story must prove the main idea that the author sought to convey to the reader when he began writing it. There is no need to unnecessarily delay the ending, but it is also not a good idea to rush it. If some questions in the work are left unanswered, the reader will feel deceived. On the other hand, if there are too many minor details in the work, and it is too drawn out, then, most likely, the reader will soon get bored of following the author's rantings, and he will leave it at the first opportunity.

The ending is the end of the story, the final scene. It can be tragic or happy - it all depends on what the author wanted to say in his work. The ending can be “open”: yes, the hero learned an important lesson, went through a difficult life situation, has changed in some ways, but this is not the end, life goes on, and it is not clear how it will all end in the end.
It's good if the reader has something to think about after he reads the last sentence.
The ending must have a meaningful meaning. The villains must get what they deserve, the sufferers must receive retribution. Those who have erred must pay for their mistakes and see the light, or continue to be ignorant. Each of the heroes changed, did some things for themselves important conclusions, which the author wants to present as the main idea of ​​his work. In fables, in such cases, a moral is usually deduced, but in poems, stories or novels, the author’s thought should be conveyed to the reader more subtly, unobtrusively.
For the final scene, it is best to choose some important moment in the hero’s life. For example, the story should end with a wedding, recovery, and the achievement of a certain goal.
The ending can be anything, depending on how the author resolves the conflict: happy, tragic, or ambiguous. In any case, it is worth emphasizing that after everything that happened, the heroes reconsidered their views on love and friendship, on the world around them.
The author resorts to an epilogue when he believes that the denouement of the work has not yet fully explained the direction of further development of the people depicted and their destinies. In the epilogue, the author strives to make the author’s judgment on what is depicted especially tangible.

Literature:

1. Veselovsky A.N. Historical poetics, Leningrad, 1940;
2. Sokolov A.N., Essays on the history of Russian poetry, M., 1956
3. G. L. Abramovich. Introduction to literary criticism.
4. Prose page materials. Ru. Copyright Competition - K2
5. Prosims forum (“Modest”).

In Pushkin's work, poems occupy the largest place along with lyrics. Pushkin wrote twelve poems (one of them, “Tazit,” remained unfinished), and more than twelve more were preserved in sketches, plans, and initial lines.

At the Lyceum, Pushkin began, but did not finish, a very weak, still quite childish, humorous poem “The Monk” (1813) and a humorous fairy-tale poem “Bova” (1814). In the first, a Christian church legend is parodied in the spirit of Voltairean freethinking, in the second, a popular folk tale.

In these works young Pushkin not yet an independent poet, but only an unusually talented student of his predecessors, Russian and French poets (Voltaire, Karamzin, Radishchev). The history of Pushkin’s poem does not begin with these youthful experiences; Yes, they were not published during the author’s lifetime.

In 1817, Pushkin began his greatest poem - “Ruslan and Lyudmila” - and wrote it for three whole years.

These were the years of rising revolutionary sentiment among the noble youth, when secret circles and societies were created that prepared the December uprising of 1825.

Pushkin, although not a member of the Secret Society, was one of the largest figures in this movement. He was the only one in these years (before exile to the south) who wrote revolutionary poems, which were immediately distributed in handwritten copies throughout the country.

But even in legal, printed literature, Pushkin had to fight reactionary ideas. In 1817, Zhukovsky published the fantastic poem "Vadim" - the second part of the large poem "The Twelve Sleeping Virgins" (the first part of it - "Thunderbreaker" - was published back in 1811). Taking a conservative position, Zhukovsky wanted with this work to lead young people away from political actions into the realm of romantic, religiously colored dreams. His hero (to whom the poet did not accidentally give the name Vadim - legendary hero uprising of the Novgorodians against Prince Rurik) is an ideal young man, striving for exploits and at the same time feeling in his soul a mysterious call to something unknown, otherworldly. He eventually overcomes all earthly temptations and, steadily following this call, finds happiness in a mystical union with one of the twelve virgins, whom he awakens from their wonderful sleep. The action of the poem takes place either in Kyiv or Novgorod. Vadim defeats the giant and saves the Kyiv princess, whom her father intends for him to be his wife. This reactionary poem was written with great poetic power, beautiful verses, and Pushkin had every reason to fear its strong influence on the development of young Russian literature. In addition, “Vadim” was at that time the only major work created by a representative of the new literary school, which has just finally won the fight against classicism.

Pushkin responded to “Vadim” with “Ruslan and Lyudmila,” also a fairy-tale poem from the same era, with a number of similar episodes. But all its ideological content is sharply polemical in relation to the ideas of Zhukovsky. Instead of mysterious and mystical feelings and almost ethereal images, Pushkin’s everything is earthly, material; the entire poem is filled with playful, mischievous eroticism (description of Ruslan’s wedding night, Ratmir’s adventures with twelve maidens, Chernomor’s attempts to take possession of the sleeping Lyudmila, etc., as well as a number of author’s digressions).

The polemical meaning of the poem is fully revealed at the beginning of the fourth song, where the poet directly points to the object of this polemic - Zhukovsky's poem "The Twelve Sleeping Virgins" - and mockingly parodies it, turning its heroines, mystically minded pure maidens, "nuns of saints", into frivolous inhabitants of a roadside "hotels" that lure travelers to their place.

Pushkin’s witty, brilliant, sparkling poem immediately dispelled the mystical fog that surrounded folk fairy-tale motifs and images in Zhukovsky’s poem. After “Ruslan and Lyudmila” it became no longer possible to use them to implement reactionary religious ideas.

The good-natured Zhukovsky himself admitted defeat in this literary struggle, giving Pushkin his portrait with the inscription: “To the winning student from the defeated teacher, on that highly solemn day when he finished his poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila.”

This poem put Pushkin in first place among Russian poets. They began to write about him in Western European magazines.

However, being the largest phenomenon in Russian literature and public life, humorous fairy tale poem Pushkina had not yet put Russian literature on a par with the literature of the West, where Goethe in Germany, Byron and Shelley in England, Chateaubriand and Benjamin Constant in France were active in those years, each in their own way solving the most important issues of our time in their work.

Since 1820, Pushkin has been included in this series, creating one after another his romantic poems, serious and deep in content, modern in subject matter and highly poetic in form. With these poems ("Caucasian Prisoner", "Robber Brothers", "Bakhchisarai Fountain") a new direction enters Russian literature: advanced, revolutionary romanticism - a poetic expression of the feelings and views of the most advanced social stratum, the revolutionary-minded noble youth, the most active of which the Decembrists were part. Sharp dissatisfaction with everything around, with the entire social structure, in which life seems to be a prison, and a person is a prisoner; fiery desire for freedom; freedom as an object of almost religious cult (1) is one side of the worldview of the revolutionary romantics of the 20s. At the same time, their social loneliness, the lack of a living connection with the people, whose suffering they deeply sympathized with, but whose life they knew poorly and understood little - all this gave a tragic and extremely subjective, individualistic character to their worldview. The feelings and tragic experiences of a lonely, proud person standing high above the crowd became the main content of Pushkin’s romantic work. Protest against any oppression weighing on a person in a “civilized” society - political, social, moral, religious oppression - forced him, like all revolutionary romantics of that time, to sympathetically portray his hero as a criminal. a violator of all accepted social norms - religious ones. legal, moral. The favorite image of the romantics is “a criminal and a hero,” who “was worthy of both the horror of people and glory.” Finally, characteristic of the romantics was the desire to take poetry away from the reproduction of everyday reality, which they hated, into the world of the unusual, exotic, geographical or historical. There they found the images of nature they needed - powerful and rebellious (“deserts, edges of pearly waves, and the noise of the sea, and piles of rocks”), and images of people, proud, brave, free, not yet touched by European civilization.

Byron's work, which in many ways was close to the worldview of Russian advanced romantics, played a major role in the poetic embodiment of these feelings and experiences. Pushkin, and after him other poets, used, first of all, the successfully found English poet the form of a “Byronic poem”, in which the purely lyrical experiences of the poet are clothed in a narrative form with a fictional hero and events far from real events the life of the poet, but perfectly expressing his inner life, his soul. “...He comprehended, created and described a single character (namely his own), - Pushkin wrote in a note about Byron’s dramas. - He created himself a second time, now under the turban of a renegade, now in the cloak of a corsair, now as a giaur dying under the schema... ". So Pushkin, in his romantic poems, tried to “create himself a second time,” either as a prisoner in the Caucasus, or as Aleko, who escaped from the “captivity of stuffy cities.” Pushkin himself more than once pointed out the lyrical, almost autobiographical nature of his romantic heroes.

The external features of Pushkin’s southern poems are also associated with the Byronian tradition: a simple, undeveloped plot, a small number of characters (two, three), fragmentary and sometimes deliberately unclear presentation.

A constant characteristic of Pushkin’s poetic talent is the ability to vigilantly observe reality and the desire to speak about it in precise words. In the poems, this was reflected in the fact that, when creating romantic images of nature and people, Pushkin did not invent them, did not write (like, for example, Byron about Russia or, later, Ryleev about Siberia) about what he himself did not see, but was always based on living personal impressions - the Caucasus, Crimea, Bessarabian steppes.

Pushkin's poems created and for a long time predetermined the type of romantic poem in Russian literature. They caused numerous imitations by minor poets, and also had a strong influence on the work of such poets as Ryleev, Kozlov, Baratynsky and, finally, Lermontov.

Besides " Caucasian prisoner", "The Robber Brothers" and "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai", written before 1824 and soon published, Pushkin also conceived other romantic poems. "I still have poems wandering in my head," he wrote to Delvig in March 1821. In manuscripts he was left with sketches of several poems, where Pushkin in different ways, with different plots and in different national environments, thought to develop the same “heroic” or “criminal” romantic image and show it inevitably tragic fate. Pushkin published an excerpt from one of these poems, where the ataman of the Volga robbers was to become the hero, under the title “The Robber Brothers.” The beginning of the great romantic poem "Vadim" has also been preserved.

During these same years, perhaps under the influence of the enormous success of “Ruslan and Lyudmila,” Pushkin also thought about poems of a completely different type - magical-fairy tales, with an adventurous plot and historical or mythological characters: about Bova the Prince, about Vladimir’s son St. Mstislav and his the fight against the Circassians, about Actaeon and Diana. But these plans, which distracted the poet from his main task - the development and deepening of romantic themes - were never implemented by him.

However, in the spring of 1821, Pushkin wrote a short poem "Gabriiliad", a witty, brilliant anti-religious satire - a response to the intensified political reaction, colored in these years by mysticism and religious hypocrisy.

In 1823, Pushkin experienced a severe crisis in his romantic worldview. Disappointed in the hope of the imminent realization of the victory of the revolution, first in the West, and then in Russia - and Pushkin, full of “careless faith”, was completely convinced of this victory - he soon became disillusioned with all his romantic ideals - freedom, an exalted hero , high purpose poetry, romantic eternal love. At this time he writes a number of gloomy, bitter poems, pouring out his “bile” and “cynicism” (in his words) - “The Sower”, “Demon”, “Conversation of a Bookseller with a Poet” (and a little later - “Scene from Faust") and others that remained unfinished in the manuscript. In these verses, he bitterly ridicules all the basic tenets of his romantic worldview.

Among such works is the poem “The Gypsies,” written in 1824. Its content is a critical exposure of the romantic ideal of freedom and the romantic hero. The romantic hero Aleko, who finds himself in a desired environment of complete freedom, the opportunity to do whatever he wants without hindrance, reveals his true essence: he turns out to be an egoist and a rapist. In "Gypsies" the very romantic ideal of unlimited freedom is debunked. Pushkin convincingly shows that complete freedom of action, absence of restrictions and obligations in public life would be feasible only for people who are primitive, idle, lazy, “timid and kind at heart,” but in personal life, in love, it turns out to be a purely animal passion, not associated with any moral experiences. The inability to go beyond the purely romantic, subjective view of life inevitably leads the poet to the deeply gloomy conclusion that happiness on earth is impossible “and there is no protection from fate.” "The Gypsies" - a poem of a turning point, transitional period - is ideologically and artistically a huge step forward compared to previous poems. Despite quite romantic character and its style, and the exotic setting, and heroes, Pushkin here for the first time uses the method of a purely realistic test of the fidelity of his romantic ideals. He does not suggest the speeches and actions of his characters, but simply places them in a given setting and observes how they behave in the circumstances they encounter. In fact, Aleko, a typical romantic hero, well known to us from Pushkin’s poems and lyrics of the early 20s, could not have acted differently in the situation in which he found himself. The double murder he commits out of jealousy is fully consistent with his character and worldview, revealed both in the poem itself and in other romantic works of that era. On the other hand, Zemfira, such as she is shown by Pushkin, also could not do otherwise, could not remain faithful to Aleko forever - after all, she is a gypsy, the daughter of Mariula, and her story only repeats - with the exception of the tragic ending - the story of her mother.

This “objective” position of the author of “Gypsy” in relation to the actions and feelings of his characters was reflected in the form itself: most of the episodes of the poem are given in the form of dialogues, in a dramatic form, where the author’s voice is absent, and the characters themselves speak and act.

"Gypsies" is a work in which the crisis of the worldview of Pushkin the romantic was most deeply reflected; at the same time, in terms of the method of developing the theme, it opened up new paths in Pushkin’s work - the path to realism.

In the summer of 1824, Pushkin was expelled from Odessa to Mikhailovskoye, without the right to leave there. Constant and close communication with the peasants and the people, apparently more than anything else, helped to overcome the grave crisis in the poet’s worldview. He became convinced of the injustice of his bitter reproaches to the people for their reluctance to fight for their freedom (2), he realized that “freedom” is not some abstract moral and philosophical concept, but a concrete historical one, always connected with social life, and for such freedom - political, economic - the people have always fought tirelessly (constant peasant riots against the landowners, not to mention the uprisings of Pugachev, Razin or the era of the “Time of Troubles”). He had to see that all his disappointments in previous romantic ideals were the result of insufficient knowledge of reality itself, its objective laws and little poetic interest in it itself. In 1825, a sharp turn occurred in Pushkin’s work. Having finally broken with romanticism, Pushkin emerges from his crisis. His poetry takes on a clear and generally bright, optimistic character. The former task of his poetry - the expression of his own feelings and suffering, a poetic response to the imperfections of life, contrary to the subjective, albeit noble demands of the romantic, the embodiment of romantic ideals in the images of the unusual - exotic, idealized nature and extraordinary heroes - is replaced by a new one. Pushkin consciously makes his poetry a means of understanding the ordinary reality that he previously rejected, and strives by an act poetic creativity penetrate into it, understand its typical phenomena, objective patterns. The desire to correctly explain human psychology inevitably leads him to the study and artistic embodiment of social life, to depiction in certain plot forms social conflicts, the reflection of which is human psychology.

The same desire to understand reality, modernity pushes him to study the past, to reproduce important points history.

In connection with these new creative tasks both the nature of the objects depicted in Pushkin and the very style of depiction change: instead of the exotic, unusual - everyday life, nature, people; instead of a poetically sublime, abstract, metaphorical style - a simple, close to colloquial, but nevertheless highly poetic style.

Pushkin creates a new direction in literature - realism, which later (from the 40s) became the leading direction of Russian literature.

Pushkin gives the main, primary embodiment of this new, realistic direction, these new tasks of correct knowledge of reality and its laws not so much in poems as in other genres: in drama ("Boris Godunov", "little tragedies"), in prose stories ("Belkin's Tales", "The Captain's Daughter", etc.), in the poetic novel - "Eugene Onegin". In these genres, it was easier for Pushkin to implement new principles and develop new methods of realistic creativity.

A kind of manifesto of this new direction in Russian literature were the historical folk tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825) and the central chapters of "Eugene Onegin" (3) (1825-1826).

At the same time (in December 1825) Pushkin wrote his first realistic poem - the playful, cloudlessly cheerful "Count Nulin". In it, on a simple, almost anecdotal plot, many beautiful paintings, landscapes, and conversations of the most ordinary, “prosaic,” everyday content, turned into true poetry, are strung together. Here you can find almost all the images with which Pushkin, in a half-serious and half-joking stanza from “Onegin’s Travels,” characterizes his new realistic style, as opposed to the romantic “piles of rocks,” “the sound of the sea,” “deserts,” and the image of a “proud maiden” (4) : here is a slope, and a fence, and gray clouds in the sky, and rainy season, and a backyard, and ducks, and even a “housewife” (albeit a bad one) as the heroine of the poem...

The defeat of the December uprising of 1825 and the subsequent political and social reaction, a temporary stop in the development of the Russian revolutionary movement, changed the nature of Russian literature: the theme of the struggle for freedom disappeared from it for several years. Pushkin, returned from exile by Nicholas I, given the opportunity to communicate with friends, enjoying enormous popularity among the public, nevertheless did not feel happy.

The stuffy social atmosphere after the defeat of the Decembrists, the reactionary, cowardly, philistine moods, supported by the new reactionary journalism, which reigned in society and infected many of his friends - all this at times caused Pushkin to have attacks of complete despair, expressed in such poems as “A gift in vain, a random gift, life, why were you given to me?” or “In the worldly steppe, sad and boundless...” (“The last key is the cold key of oblivion, it will quench the heat of the heart sweetest of all”).

The idea that death is preferable to life, Pushkin thought to form the basis of a gloomy poem he began in 1826 about the hero of the gospel legend - Ahasfer ("The Eternal Jew"), punished for his crime before God with immortality. However, these dark themes remained a temporary episode in Pushkin’s work. He managed to overcome his difficult mood, and the poem about Agasphere was left at the very beginning.

During these years of social decline creative work Pushkin’s work does not stop, but at this time he is developing themes that are not directly related to the theme of the liberation movement. The subject of the poet's close attention is the human psyche, characters, "passions", their influence on the human soul (the central chapters of "Eugene Onegin", "small tragedies", sketches of prose stories).

Among Pushkin's works of 1826-1830, inspired by a “psychological” theme, we do not find a single poem. (True, in the poems “Poltava” and “Tazit” the development of the psychology of the heroes occupies a large place, but it is not the main task of these purely political works.) A more suitable form for artistic analysis human psychology were a novel in verse, a dramatic sketch, a prose story or a story.

During these same years, Pushkin also wrote a number of major works of political content, but of a different nature. In his work of this time, the theme of the Russian state, the fate of Russia in the struggle with the West for its independence is embodied - an echo of Pushkin’s youthful memories of the events of 1812-1815. In parallel with this, he poetically develops the most important theme of the multinationality of the Russian state, writes about the historical pattern of the unification of many different peoples into one state whole. In the poem "Poltava" these themes are developed on the historical material of the struggle of Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. with the then strongest military state - Sweden. Here Pushkin poetically reveals his assessment of the relationship between Russia and Ukraine. In another, unfinished poem, "Tazit", based on Pushkin's impressions from his second Caucasian trip (1829). and reflections on the complexity and difficulty of the issue of ending the enmity of the peoples of the Caucasus with the Russians, the same national-political theme develops.

In the 30s Pushkin's work is again almost entirely devoted to the development of social issues. The people, the serf peasantry, their life, their poetry, their struggle for their liberation - becomes one of the main themes of Pushkin the artist and historian, as he became in these years. The life of a fortress village is shown in the unfinished “History of the Village of Goryukhin”, in “Dubrovsky”; In fairy tales and the drama "Rusalka" the motifs of folk poetry are reproduced and artistically processed. Pushkin first shows the struggle of the peasants against the landowners in the form of “robbery” (in “Dubrovsky”), and these are no longer romantic “robber brothers”, but living, real types of peasants and servants. Pushkin devotes two large works to the real peasant war, “Pugachevism” - the story “The Captain's Daughter” and the historical study “The History of Pugachev”. Popular uprising against the feudal knights and the participation in it of representatives of the bourgeois class make up the unfinished drama “Scenes from the Times of Knights.”

During these years, Pushkin introduced a new hero into literature - the suffering, oppressed " little man", a victim of an unfair social structure - in the story "The Station Warden", in the novel "Yezersky", in the poem "The Bronze Horseman".

Pushkin reacts sharply to the changes taking place before his eyes in the class composition of the intelligentsia, in particular the literary community. Previously, “only nobles were engaged in literature,” as Pushkin repeated more than once, seeing this as the reason for the writer’s independent behavior in relation to the authorities. to the government, then now representatives of the common, bourgeois intelligentsia are beginning to play an increasingly larger role in literature. In those years, this new democracy was not yet a “revolutionary democracy”; on the contrary, most of its leaders, fighting with representatives of the ruling noble, landowner class for their place in life, did not reveal any oppositional sentiments towards the government or the tsar.

Pushkin considered the only force capable of opposing its independence to government arbitrariness to be a “powerful defender” of the people the nobility from which the Decembrists emerged, an impoverished nobility, but “with education,” “with hatred against the aristocracy” (5). “There is no such terrible element of rebellion in Europe either,” Pushkin wrote in his diary. “Who were on the square on December 14? Only nobles. How many of them will there be at the first new indignation? I don’t know, but it seems like a lot.”

Pushkin embodied these thoughts about the role of the ancient nobility in the liberation movement (in the past and in the future), the condemnation of its representatives who do not understand their historical mission and grovel before the authorities, before the “new nobility”, the tsar’s servants, not only in his journalistic notes, but and in works of art, in particular, they constitute the main, main content of the first stanzas of “Yezersky” written by Pushkin.

In the 30s Pushkin had to wage a fierce literary struggle. His opponents were reactionary, cowardly, unscrupulous journalists and critics who had captured almost the entire mass of readers, pandering to the philistine tastes of readers from small landowners and officials, who did not disdain political denunciations against their literary enemies. They persecuted Pushkin for everything new that he introduced into literature - the realistic direction, simplicity of expression, reluctance to moralize... Pushkin included polemics with modern journalism about the tasks of literature in the initial stanzas of "Yezersky", this same polemic constitutes the main content of the entire poem - "House in Kolomna."

Pushkin completed a long series of poems written from 1820 to 1833 with “The Bronze Horseman” - a poem about the conflict between the happiness of an individual and the good of the state - his best work, remarkable both for the extraordinary depth and courage of thought, the severity of the historical and social problem posed by the poet , and in the perfection of artistic expression. This work still causes controversy and different interpretations.

Pushkin used many genres in his work, but the poem always remained his favorite form for expressing his “mind of cold observations and heart of sorrowful observations.” Pushkin celebrated almost every stage of his development with a poem; almost every life problem that arose before him found expression in a poem. The enormous distance between the light, brilliant poem of the twenty-year-old Pushkin - "Ruslan and Lyudmila" - and the deeply philosophical poem "The Bronze Horseman", written by the thirty-four-year-old sage poet - clearly shows the swiftness of Pushkin's path, the steepness of the peak to which Pushkin, and with him, climbed and all Russian literature.

(1) Freedom! He was still looking for you alone in the desert world... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . And with faith, fiery prayer, Your proud idol embraced. (“Caucasian captive.”) (2) Graze, peaceful peoples! A cry of honor will not awaken you. Why do the herds need the gifts of freedom? They should be cut or trimmed. Their inheritance from generation to generation is a yoke with rattles and a whip. (“The Desert Sower of Freedom...”, 1823) (3) The original plan (1823) and the first chapters of the novel date back to the period of the Pushkin crisis. Realistic images in them are given polemically, with the aim of mocking everyday reduction of traditional romantic images and situations. “...I am writing a new poem, “Eugene Onegin,” in which I am choking on bile” (letter to A.I. Turgenev dated December 1, 1823); “...don’t trust N. Raevsky, who scolds him (“Eugene Onegin.” - S.B.) - he expected romanticism from me, found satire and cynicism and did not lose heart” (letter to his brother dated January-February 1824 G.). (4) I need other pictures: I love a sandy slope, In front of a hut there are two rowan trees, A gate, a broken fence, Gray clouds in the sky, In front of a threshing floor there are heaps of straw and a pond under the canopy of thick willows, The expanse of young ducks. My ideal now is a hostess... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sometimes on a rainy day I turned into a barnyard... (Excerpts from Onegin's Travels, 1829) (5) That is, the ruling elite.

CM. Bondi. Poems by Pushkin.