§ 70. Speech sounds that are part of more complex units of language (morphemes, words, etc.), during the formation of different grammatical forms or other words of the same root can be modified, replaced by one another (cf., for example, root vowels in Russian words: old – old man – old man , new – new – novelty , white – whitewash – whitish; final consonants of the root in the following words: Friend- O friend[ʌdnig"b] – buddy – Friends , leg – leg – leg – little leg; final consonants of the suffix in nouns: collective farmer – collective farmer , schoolboy; consonants as part of the prefix of verbs: open[ʌtkrat"] – beat off[ʌdb "ft"] etc. This phenomenon is called alternating sounds, or alternation(from lat. alternatio– “alternation, change”). Alternation is usually defined as the interchange of sounds within a particular morpheme.
Let's compare similar definitions this concept, proposed by the authors various works: "ALTERNATING , alternation,– interchange of sounds within the same morpheme in different words ah or word forms", "interchange of sounds within a morpheme in different cases its use (as part of different words or word forms)”, “replacement of some sounds with others in the same part of the word”, which occurs “during the formation and change of words”.
With this understanding of the alternation of sounds (or phonemes), sometimes a significant, in our opinion, clarification is made: alternating sounds “must occupy the same place (emphasis added. – V.N.) as part of the same morpheme." This idea is emphasized in some definitions of the concept under consideration; alternation of sounds is defined as "a change of sounds occupying the same place in a morpheme in different cases of its use," or: "the fact of the difference in sounds occupying the same place in the sound shell of the same morpheme in different cases of its use."
Some linguists recognize as alternation only such interchanges of sounds within a morpheme that are regular in nature, for example: “By sound alternations we mean such a change in the sound composition of a morpheme that is regular in nature and associated with the alternation of certain morphological positions.” It seems that such a categorical statement does not correspond to reality. It is hardly possible to recognize the interchange of consonants in Russian word forms as regular Friend – friends, watch over – guard, replacing a vowel sound with zero A in word form hare(cf. hare), vowel And in word form one(cf. one) etc. Nevertheless, such phenomena should be recognized precisely as alternation of sounds. Obviously, it would be more correct to talk about different degrees regularity of alternation of sounds, as some linguists do, in particular V. A. Vinogradov.
As already noted, to denote the phenomenon considered here, along with the term “alternation”, the term “alternation”, which is of Latin origin, is used, which is convenient in that it allows the formation of derivative terminological names, such as “alternant”, “alternation series (sounds, phonemes)". Alternants are called sound units(“sound quantities”) participating in the alternation, i.e. sounds, phonemes, sometimes combinations of phonemes that replace each other when alternating. Under alternating row is understood as a set of alternants participating in the alternation process, i.e. replacing each other as part of a certain morpheme, for example, consonants g–g" – k – f – w at the root of the following words and word forms: nog-a, nog-i, nog, nog-noy, nok-ka; m – m" – ml" at the root: feed – feed – I feed.
§ 71. From the examples given above (see § 70) of the alternation of sounds in the modern Russian language, it is clear that in some cases the interchange of sounds is associated with certain phonetic conditions (cf., for example, the alternation of root vowels in words old – old man – old man etc.; alternation of root consonants in word forms Friend – friend - about a friend, consonants in the prefix of verbs open – beat off etc.), in other cases, the interchange of sounds is in no way connected with the phonetic conditions of their use in modern language (alternation of consonants in words Friend – buddy, leg – leg, schoolboy – schoolgirl etc.). On this basis, alternations of sounds are divided into two main types - phonetic and non-phonetic alternations, or phonetically conditioned and phonetically unconditioned. The first (phonetic alternations) are sometimes also called positional, allophonemic, or living. The latter (non-phonetic alternations) are most often called historical, less often - traditional, non-positional, phonemic, morphological, grammatical, dead, etc.
Phonetic These are called alternations of sounds that are determined phonetically, depend on phonetic conditions, on the phonetic position, or position, in a word (hence the name “positional alternations”). In this case, sounds belonging to the same phoneme alternate, i.e. different backgrounds, or allophones, allophonemes of a given phoneme (hence the name “allophonemic alternations”). In other words, with phonetic alternation, “alternants are sounds that mutually exclude each other in different phonetic positions, i.e., belonging to the same phoneme.” According to the definition of A. A. Reformatsky, phonetic are those alternations in which “the change in sound is due to position and variants or variations of the same phoneme alternate, without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes.”
Phonetic alternations of sounds are the result of changes in phonemes, which were discussed in detail above (see § 67–69). Depending on the type of positional changes in phonemes in the speech stream (actually positional or combinatorial changes), actual positional and combinatorial alternations are distinguished among phonetic alternations of sounds. According to M.I. Matusevich, phonetic, or living (in the author’s terminology), alternations of sounds “depend on one or another neighborhood of consonants ( combinatorial alternations) or from the position in the word ( positional alternations)".
Phonetic alternations are widely represented in modern Russian, where vowels usually alternate with vowels, consonants with consonants ( typical examples phonetic alternations of vowels and consonants in the Russian language were given in § 68–70).
Obviously, we can talk about phonetic alternation different sounds(vowels and consonants) with no sound, or zero sound. In the linguistic literature, attention is drawn, in particular, to the alternation of consonants with a zero sound in the Russian language. We are talking about the loss of consonant sounds when consonants come together in a word, for example, when pronouncing Russian words abyss, feeling, envious, happy, late and many others. This alternation also applies to vowel sounds.
A distinctive feature of the phonetic alternation of sounds is that, as a rule, it is not reflected in writing. Exceptions, at least in Russian, are relatively rare, for example: beat up – get dirty, cut - saw, woo - wedding.
Non-phonetic are such alternations of sounds that in modern language are not determined phonetically, do not depend on the phonetic conditions of use, on the phonetic position (hence the name " non-positional alternations"). With non-phonetic alternations within a morpheme, not individual variants, backgrounds, or allophones of one or another phoneme are interchanged (as with phonetic alternations), but different phonemes or combinations of phonemes (hence the name “phoneme alternations”). According to the definition of A. A. Reformatsky, alternations are considered non-phonetic, in which “the change in sound does not depend on positions, but different phonemes alternate, due to which the morphemes receive a different phonemic composition in their different variants.”
With non-phonetic alternations, a wide variety of phonetic, or more precisely phonemic, units ("quantities") can be interchanged, for example:
- – vowel and vowel (cf. Russian deaf - deaf, dry - dry - dry, lay - stil, finish – finish, look at – consider; German sprech-en(speak) - sprich-t(speaks) - sprach(spoke) - ge-sproch-en(said) Sohn(son) - Sohn-e(sons); Lithuanian grqz-inti(return, return) – griz-ti(return, return));
- – vowel and consonant (cf. Russian beat – I hit , pee - drink , shi-th - sew );
- – vowel and combination of a vowel followed by a consonant (cf. Russian sing - sing , roof – cut , accept - accept, begin - begin, press - press);
- – a vowel and the absence of a vowel, or zero sound (the so-called false alternation) (cf. Russian sleep - sn-a, day - day-ya, must-tear - cut, move away – push away, circle-ok - circle-to-a, catcher - catch-ts-a, fox-y - fox );
- – consonant and consonant (cf. Russian friend - friends – friendship, hand – hand, dry – sush-it, bear - bear-y, weight - ved-y, pla-ti - weave-y, light-it - candle-a - about-shine-at, root - side-ok, file-nick - file-nich-ek; Lithuanian ves-ti(news) – ved-u(leading) ant-is(duck) - anc-iukas(duckling), gaid-ys(rooster) - gaidz-iai(lose) - Ver-lus-t(loss); French dire|d"i:r] (speak) – dissons(we speak);
- – consonant and combination of two consonants (cf. Russian catch - catch, buy - buy, count - count.
In languages in which short and long sounds are phonologically distinguished, e.g. short and long sounds of the same quality act as different phonemes; they can also alternate with each other (cf., for example, Latin sede-o(sitting) - sdde-s(sitting) video-o(see); Lithuanian bu-ti(be) - bu-vo(was), siH-ti(sew) - siu-vo(pour) – li-jo(lil)). Such alternations, i.e. alternations of sounds (phonemes), differing only in longitude - brevity, are called quantitative, or quantitative(as opposed to the above high quality alternations, in which alternating sounds differ qualitatively - based on location, method of formation, etc.).
In those languages sound system which have diphthongs, the latter can alternate with each other (cf., for example: German Braut(bride) - Braut-e(brides – plural), Maus(mouse) - Mous-chen(mouse); Lithuanian diev-as(God) - deiv-έ(snow) - snaig-έ(snowflake), laiz-yti(lick) – liez-uvis(language)).
Diphthongs can also alternate with monophthong vowels and other phonetic units (cf. English tol-d(said) - tell(say); Lithuanian braid-yti braid"-i:t"ij (wander) – bris-ti(Love) - myl-eti(love), rau-ti(to pull out) - rov-έ(pulled out).
As can be seen from the examples given, non-phonetic alternations of sounds (as opposed to phonetic alternations) are usually reflected in writing.
Non-phonetic alternations in the past, during different periods of language development, were mainly phonetic, phonetically determined (hence their name - “historical alternations”). Subsequently, due to the termination of the relevant phonetic laws they ceased to be phonetically determined and were preserved in modern languages by tradition (hence the name “traditional alternations”). So, for example, in Old Russian language back lingual consonants G[g], To[k], X could only be used before front vowels; in position before front vowels they regularly changed into corresponding sibilants and[z], h[With], w[s]. In modern Russian, both consonant sounds can be used under similar phonetic conditions, i.e. non-phonetic consonant alternations possible h – f, k – h, x – w, for example, words (word forms) like run - run, baker – stove, plowman - plowing. Alternation of vowels o, uh[e] with zero sound is associated with a change in former reduced vowels b, b depending on their phonetic position: in the strong position they regularly changed into the corresponding vowels of full formation, and in weak position were lost. Hence in modern Russian the alternation: dream(from son, where the root reduced vowel was in a strong position), – sleep(from son, where this vowel was in a weak position), day(from day) – day(from day). Similarly, vowel alternation arose And[i] with zero sound in place of the corresponding tense reduced, used in the position before the consonant j(cf.: fox – fox).
In non-phonetic alternations occurring in current state different languages, certain patterns can be traced, which, however, appear very inconsistently. For example, in modern Russian the alternation of vowels is widespread uh[e] and o after soft consonants. The use of one vowel or another, as a rule, depends on the place word stress and hardness - softness of the subsequent consonant: under stress before a hard consonant, the vowel o is usually used, in other cases - e [e] (cf., for example: villages, town, But village(no accent) rural(followed by a soft consonant); ice, sleet, subglacial, But black ice(followed by a soft consonant), ice(no accent) ice(there is no stress and a soft consonant follows)). The inconsistency of the pattern formulated above lies, first of all, in the fact that this alternation does not apply to vowels arising from the sound ѣ (cf.: forest, bread, cart etc.), with extremely rare exceptions ( nests- from gnѣ hello, saddles- from Withѣ dla), it doesn't happen in words foreign language origin(cf.: antenna, newspaper, progress etc.) and in some other cases. On the other hand, such alternation is possible in the absence of the above phonetic conditions, for example, in the position before a soft consonant (cf.: beret, birch forest and on birch).
In some Slavic languages, under certain phonetic conditions, vowel alternation is observed uh[e] and A(cf., for example, Bulgarian abyss(bread) - bread(genitive case), Polish las (genitive case) – w liesie ( prepositional), siano (hay), siana (genitive case) – na sienie (prepositional case). IN Bulgarian language the alternation of these sounds is determined by the nature of the syllable (in open syllable sound is usually used uh[e], in closed – A), in Polish - by the hardness or softness of the subsequent consonant (before a hard consonant it is used A, before soft - e). Such alternation is characteristic only of vowels dating back to the ancient ѣ.
IN Polish language nasal vowels allow alternation: ts[on] and q[en]. Usually (as a rule) q[on] is used in closed syllables, q[ep] – in open: dqb(oak) – dqby[beby] (oak trees), zqb(tooth) - zqby(teeth), rqka(hand) - rqk(hands). However, it also happens the other way around, for example, in the words: piqc"[p"enc"] (five) – piqtek(washed, washed), Bruder(Brother) - Binder(brothers) Vogel(bird) - Vogel(birds); English goose(goose) - geese(geese), foot(leg) – feet(legs); Lithuanian braidau(wandering) - braidziau(wandered) statau(put, build) – staciau(set, built), jus(You) –jus(you - accusative case plural).
So, among grammatical (morphological) alternations, alternations of sounds (phonemes) are distinguished as the only means of expressing grammatical meanings and as an additional, auxiliary means that accompanies other morphemic grammatical means.
Alternation of sounds
Why do words alternate sounds? This occurs during the formation of grammatical forms of words. That is, sounds in the same morpheme, for example in a root, can replace each other. This replacement is called alternation. Let us note right away that we will talk about phonetic processes, and not about spelling words.
In certain cases, not only vowel sounds alternate, but also consonants. Most often, alternation is found in roots, suffixes and prefixes.
Moss - moss, carry - carry, cool - cooler, friend - friends - be friends - at the root of the word;
circle - mug, daughter - daughters, winter - winter, valuable - valuable - in suffixes;
wait - wait, call - convene, rub - rub - in prefixes.
There are two types of alternations: historical (they cannot be explained, they arose a long time ago and are associated with the loss of vowel sounds [ъ], [ь] (сънъ - съна, стънь - flatter) or with the inexplicable identity of consonant sounds (run - run) and phonetic ( positional in a different way, since they depend on the position of the sound in the word [nΛga - nok], they can be explained from the point of view of the modern Russian language, for example, the alternation [g//k] arose because the consonant sound is preserved before the vowel, and in at the end of the word the sound is deafened and changes its sound quality).
Historical alternations
Phonetic (positional) alternations
|
Vowel sounds | |
|
[o//i e //b] [a//i e //b] [e//i e//b] |
V [O] day - in [Λ ]yes - in [ъ] dyanoy tr [A] vka - tr [Λ] va - tr [ъ]withered n [O] s - n [And uh ] set - n [b] Suny n [A] t - p [And uh ] type [b]titenth With [e] m - s [And uh ] mi - s [b] mid-tenth |
|
vowel sounds | |
|
voiced - voiceless hard - soft |
But [and] and - but [w] mo[ l]- mo [l’]ь |
Historical alternations are revealed during word formation and form change.
Phonetic (positional) can be determined by the reduction of vowels and assimilation of consonant sounds.
There are many fluent vowels when changing one-syllable and two-syllable nouns according to cases [o, e, and// -]:
mouth - mouth, ice - ice, stump - stump;
fire - fire, knot - knot, wind - wind, lesson - lesson, nail - nail, hive - hive;
bucket - buckets, window - windows, needle - needles, egg - eggs.
There are also fluent vowels in short adjectives:
short is short, bitter is bitter, funny is funny, long is long, cunning is cunning.
In the roots of different types of verbs, alternations of vowels and consonants also occur:
touch - touch, inspect - inspect, collect - collect, send - send, light - light, understand - understand, squeeze - squeeze.
It is important to know the alternation of sounds in order to correctly apply spelling rules when difficulties arise with writing letters in different parts of speech. If you don’t recognize the alternation, you can make a mistake during morphemic analysis, when you highlight parts of a word.
Alternation of sounds- this is a natural difference in sounds in variants of the same morpheme.
Alternation of stressed vowels. Soft consonants cause the vowel articulation to shift forward and upward. In transcription, this shift in the initial and final phase of the vowel is indicated by dots above the letter: /ch¢ac/, /ma ¢t/.
Between soft consonants there is a shift forward and upward in the central part of the vowel: /h ast/ and /h as/, /mel/ and /m el/ - vowel – E of the front row moves (forward) upward. /pike/ and /pike/.
We see that the alternation of vowels under stress after soft and before soft consonants occurs in their significatively strong position, but they are different perceptually.
Hard consonants before and after /A, O, E, U/ have no effect on the vowel: /jaguar, gift, yes/ - the same sound is everywhere /A/ - the environment does not affect the sound - this is a perceptually strong position for /A,O,E,U/ and weak for /I/; position after soft.
In a weak position, sounds adjacent to a consonant adapt the vowel to their articulation. This can be detected by ear. In the word mass it is pronounced /A/, the position here is strong. In the word meat, it is pronounced /A/ - the sound is extraordinary throughout its sound - it is more advanced. In the word /Ira/ it is pronounced /I/ - this is the main variant of the phoneme /I/, the quality of the sound is not determined by position. In the word /cheese/ - it is pronounced /Y/, and then it is pronounced /I/: /sy-i-i-ra/.
Thus, in the perceptually weak position /A/ is the result of adaptation of /A/ to the preceding soft consonant, and in the same way /І/ is the result of adaptation of /I/ to the preceding hard one.
Alternation of unstressed vowels. Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels quantitatively and qualitatively: they are shorter than stressed vowels and are pronounced with less force and a different timbre. In connection with this distinction, stressed vowels are called vowels of full formation, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels.
There is also a difference between unstressed vowels, which is due to their place in relation to stress and position in the syllable.
Potebnya proposed a formula that conditionally estimates the strength of stressed and unstressed syllables in units of 3,2,1. Strike 3, 1st pre-strike - 2, others - 1. /b isLradak/ - disorder, /per i padgLtofk/.
The strength of an unstressed vowel depends on the following conditions: 1. an open syllable is equal to the 1st pre-stressed one: attack /LtkLvat/, aist/aist/.
The strength of an overstressed final open syllable fluctuates by 1 and 2 units: cap / capkL / \ reduced vowels of the 1st degree (2 units of stress) and a vowel of the 2nd degree, (1 unit) - b and L.
Qualitative differences between stressed and unstressed vowels are due to the fact that unstressed vowels are articulated less energetically than stressed ones. The body of the tongue occupies a position close to neutral. Unstressed /И/ /ы/ are vowels of the upper rise: the tongue does not reach the upper position: /vitrinj/, /sy ry/.
When pronouncing the vowel A in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, the tongue does not reach the extreme lower position, its more accurate representation is L: /trLva/, in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable the sound A corresponds to /Ъ/ - the tongue occupies the middle position: /нъпLдат/ .
Alternation of consonant sounds.
1. Alternation of voiced and voiceless consonants.
A) At the end of the word, voiced noisy words are replaced by unvoiced ones: /oaks/, /dup/, bu/d/eat – bu/t/.
B) Before voiceless consonants, voiced ones will be replaced by voiceless ones: ska/z/ka - /ska/sk/a, lo/zh/echka - lo/sh/ka.
C) Before voiced consonants, the voiceless ones are replaced by voiced ones: /pro/s/it/- /pro/zb/a/, molo/t/it- molo/d/ba, ta/k/oy – ta/gzh/e.
2. Alternation of consonants according to place and method of formation.
A) Before the anterior palatal (w, f, h) noisy, the dental noisy are replaced by the corresponding anterior palatal: without a wife /refugee/, from miracles o/h/miracles.
B) Plosive consonants before fricatives are replaced by affricates /Т/- /Ц/: pour - /otssypat/, fivesya- /pyatsya/, pinch off - o/ch pinch, kindergarten -de/ts/sad.
3. Alternation of hard and soft consonants.
The replacement of a hard consonant with a soft one occurs in the following positions:
A) Dental before soft dental;
mo/st/ - mo/st/ik
bridle - bridle
The sounds /L/, /L/ do not participate in the action of this pattern: /L/ is not replaced by /L/ - po/l/ny – po/ln/et; before /l/ replacement of hard dental with soft is optional;;/zl/it and /zl/it.
B) Before /Ch/ and /Sh/ the sound /N/ is replaced by /N/: vago/n/ - vago/nch/ik, deception - obma/nch/ivy.
4. Alternation of consonants with zero sound.
A combination of three or more consonants can be simplified:
/stn/: honor – che/sn/y – honest;
/sts/: six –she/ss/from- six hundred;
/stsk/: tourist - tour/sk/iy - tourist;
/sts/, /zdts/: bridle - under the bridle - under u/sts/s;
/rdc/ and /rdch/: heart – se/rts/e, se/rch/ishko.
POSITIONAL AND HISTORICAL ALTERNATIONS
Positional changes in sounds lead to the concept of alternation of sounds (phonemes). Alternation of sounds is a natural difference in sounds in variants of the same morpheme. For example: timid - timid there is an alternation in the root of the sounds [b] and [p].
The alternation of sounds may concern several variants of only one morpheme, but most often it is broader in nature and covers several or many morphemes and their variants: trade-trade-trade; city – cities – non-resident. In these examples there is an alternation of sounds [o] - [L] - [ъ].
These alternations are called positional, since they are explained by positional changes in sounds (phonemes) in accordance with currently valid phonetic laws (the law of qualitative reduction, the law of deafening voiced consonants before voiceless ones, etc.)
Positional alternations are the alternation [р`] / [р]: turner - lathe, door - door - in connection with the law of assimilation of soft consonants by hardness), and the alternation [ш] and [s]: sew - twist (in connection with the law of assimilation of dental ones before anteropalatals), etc.
But not all alternations of sounds within morphemes (in their modern versions) are explained by the current phonetic laws of the Russian language. Many alternations remained from the previous state of the Russian language - from the Old Russian, Common Slavic languages - as a result of long-vanished phonetic laws. So, for example, once upon a time in the Russian language there was a law of transition of sound combinations [kt] and [cht] into [ch], which gave the words night from nail, be able from can, oven from bake. Now such combinations are not replaced by [h] (cf.: practice, elbows, nails), This means that the law has ceased to apply. As a result, the alternations [k] - [h] and [g] - [h] remained (cf.: leaked - leaked, saved - saved.
The phonetic law of the past may cease to act as a phonetic factor, but its consequence may be not only alternations of sounds in morphemes preserved from the time of its action, but also alternations of sounds in new morphemes that appeared after the loss of the law, by analogy with the existing sound correspondences in old morphemes. So, once upon a time the sound [k] before front vowels turned into [h]: pen – rune, century – eternal; By analogy with this, but not according to the law of the first palatalization, much later similar correspondences developed in the morphs of new morphemes ( barrack - barracks, bed - bed, block - block). Also, as a result of the fall of reduced vowel sounds, an alternation of [o] with a zero sound appeared in the word forms son-sna, sleep; [e] - zero sound in the word forms day - day, day; later, by analogy with these, but not due to the loss of reduced sounds, appeared ice - ice, ice; ditch - ditch, ditch.
The alternations of sounds that remained from the time of the existing but already lost phonetic laws, as well as the same alternations that spread to new morphemes later by analogy, are called historical.
The main historical alternations in modern Russian are as follows:
1. In the vowel area:
[o] - zero sound: berezhok - berezhka, sleep - sleep, funny - funny, strong - strong;[e] or [b] - zero sound: day - day, all - all, terrible - terrible, sick - sick; [i] // [o] - lead - leads, command - will, divide - share;
[s] // zero sound: break through - break through, call - name, plug - shut up;
[s] // [y]: dry up - dry up, breath - du;
[s] // [o] or [ L]: breath - sigh - sigh; to tremble - to shudder; blaze - burn;
[o] // [a]: wear - to wear out, interrogation - to interrogate, mowing - to mow;
2. In the area of consonants:
[k] // [h]: hand - pen, old man - old man, river - river;
[g] //[g]: book - books, leg - legs, enemy - enemy, horns - horn;
[x] // [w]: fly fly, dry - dry, fear - terrible;
[ts] // \h]: bird - bird, face - personal, egg - testicle, hare;
[d] // [f], [zh]: give birth, give birth; suitable - suitable, pleasing; seeing off - seeing off, driving.
[sk] // [sh`]: shine - shine, crackle - crackle, gloss - polish;
[b`]`//[bl`]: to love - I love, to chisel - chiseling, to insult - insult.
[v`] // [vl`]: catch- catch, catch; become - becoming, declare - statement;
[p`] or [p] // [pl`]: scream - scream, drip - drops, drown - heating;
[t] // [s]: weave - weave, bloom - flowers;
[d] // [s]: lead - lead, fall - fall.
[st] - [w`]: grow – growing, clean – cleaner.
A sound from a pair of historical alternations can be included in another pair in a positional alternation. So, in case childbirth - give birth sounds alternate [d] - [zh]; the first of them has positional alternation with [d ` ] childbirth - give birth and with [t] genus - genus In such cases, all alternating sounds in several variants of one morpheme form a whole alternating (alternative) group (for the given variants of the morpheme, gender is [d] - [d ` ] - [t] - [f] - [zh].)
In addition to the alternations of sounds left over from the history of the Russian language and having a more or less regular, sometimes quite frequent character, there are isolated or atypical cases of alternation of sounds in variants of morphemes, cf.: bloated - puffy(alternation in the suffix [t] - [tl]) , cat - cat ( alternation at the root [t] - [w].
Alternations are usually considered to be changes in sounds in a given morpheme that developed in the depths of a given language and are explained by its internal, primordial reasons. The list of original alternations of the Russian language given above can be supplemented with alternations borrowed together with foreign words, which include the corresponding alternating sounds:
[k] - [ts]: electrification - electrify, application - applique;
[z ` ] - [st ` ]: fantasy - fantastic;
[z`] - [t] - [t`]: skepticism - skeptical, chaos - chaotic;
[e] - [i]: cousin - cousin;
[ts] - [s]: clown - to clown around.
Hyphenation
How to correctly divide a word into syllables? A word usually has as many syllables as there are vowel sounds: wolf (1 syllable), river (2 syllables), rise (3 syllables), advanced (4 syllables), intonation (5 syllables), appropriate (6 syllables). The longer the word, the more syllables.
A syllable can consist of one vowel sound (pronoun “I”, conjunction “a”). But most often, a syllable consists of a combination of a vowel and one or more consonants (the conjunction “but”, the pronoun “you”, the preposition “under”). Vowel sounds have the greatest sonority and are syllabic sounds.
Syllables end in a vowel sound (mA-mA) and are called open. And if there is a consonant sound at the end (moY, korM), then the syllable is considered closed. Also, syllables can be covered, that is, they begin with a consonant sound (Fa-Bri-Ka) and uncovered (Yav) - they begin with a vowel sound.
Syllables open at the end and covered at the beginning of the word: craft [r"b|m"i e |slo'], benefit [bla'|gъ], pipe [pipe|ba'].
Syllables closed at the end and covered at the beginning of the word: personal [l"i'ch"|nyj"], quarter [kvΛr|ta'l], tip [ko'n"|ch"ik].
Open and uncovered syllables: ау [Λ|у’].
Closed and open syllables: already [ush], lawsuit [suit].
When we pronounce words, we do not pause between syllables (remember reading syllables!). But sometimes hyphenation helps us in life. For example, we chant a slogan at the stadium. To make it sound clear and legible, we repeat the words syllable by syllable (“We-re-bya-ta-good!”). Either in the forest, or in the mountains, or at the other end of the street, or on the other side of the river, we need to shout something, we use the syllable division - and they will immediately hear and understand us (“A-u-I-here-and-do-do” -my!").
There is a law of ascending sonority to which all syllables obey. This means that the sounds in a word are arranged in order: from less sonorous to more sonorous. All sounds can be divided into groups according to their sonority. The most sonorous (conditionally 3) are vowels, followed by sonorant ones (conditionally 2) and the last ones are noisy consonants (conditionally 1).
When we divide words into syllables, we rely on 5 rules.
First. We divide into syllables only in transcription.
Examples: hero [b|gΛ|ty’r"], headman [sta’|rъ|stъ].
Second. In most words, the syllable separation occurs after the vowel sound, often leaving the syllable open.
Examples: orphan [s"i|rΛ|ta’], steam locomotive [pъ|рΛ|vo’s].
Third. But the syllable division can be after a sonorant sound and after if they are located next to a noisy consonant.
Examples: brand [ma'r|kъ], stick [pa'l|kъ], kayak [bΛj"|da'r|kъ].
Fourth. Noisy consonants belong to another syllable if they are combined with noisy or sonorant sounds.
Examples: mask [ma'|skъ], fiber [въ|лΛ|кно'].
Fifth. Two sonorant consonants also belong to a different syllable.
Examples: rake [gra'|bl"i], barracks [kΛ|za'|rmъ].
Let's think like this. The word “get up” has three vowel sounds, which means three syllables: [fstΛ|j"o'|t"ь]. The word “for example” also has three vowel sounds, so there are three syllables: [нъ|р" и е |м"е'р]
Test yourself! Write down the sentence using phonetic transcription, dividing the words into syllables. Please note that there are no pauses!
The travelers traveled without any adventures...
And here is the correct answer!
[Pu | t"i e | she' | st"b | n"b | k"b | j"e' | xb | l"i | b"i e s | fs"a’ | to"their |pr"and | kl"u | h"e’ | n"ij"].
Syllability in Russian
Syllable division can be considered in three phonetic positions.
1. The simplest and most indisputable case of syllable division is the division of a word into open syllables like dog, cuttlefish, pro-da-yu. Doesn't apply here aware of exceptions rule: a single intervocalic (i.e. standing between vowels) consonant is included in one syllable followed by a vowel.
2. The intervocalic combination of two consonants GSSG can theoretically either go entirely to the subsequent vowel (G-SSG), or be distributed between two syllables (GS-SG). (The GSS-G syllable division is absent in the Russian language.) The first option seems natural. Data on the nature of the transition from a vowel to the subsequent consonant have great evidentiary value in the issue of syllable division. The idea that the nature of the transition from one sound to another can serve as a criterion for establishing a syllabic boundary was first expressed by the Swedish linguist B. Malmberg in 1955. If the first component of an intervocalic combination were included in the same syllable with the preceding vowel (GS-SG) , it would be characterized by a close connection with this vowel. However, according to spectral analysis, transitions from vowel to consonant (in our examples from stressed /a, e/ To /n, p/) in word forms like wound, turnip, where syllable division is beyond doubt, and in word forms like ra-nka, re-pka, where one might assume the occurrence closed syllables ran-, rap, do not have significant differences. Thus, there is every reason to believe that the consonants /n, p/ They are not adjacent to stressed vowels and therefore do not form the same syllable with them. If we extend this position to all structures of the GSSG type, then we can say that the intervocalic combination goes to the subsequent vowel. This is also true in relation to three-phoneme combinations of consonants of the G-SSSG type. Thus, the structure of the preceding open syllable is not disrupted by intervocalic combinations.
Let us illustrate syllable division in the Russian language with specific examples.
|
barrel |
a-lfa |
|
ton |
|
noodles |
gang |
slick |
gamma |
|
bru-ski |
dirk |
nautical |
villa |
|
drop |
cardboard |
oh-too-yes |
Ma-rra(R. p. from Marr) |
|
rags |
skates |
subject | |
|
skiing |
pa-lto |
weight |
The only exception to this rule is the combination /j/+ consonant: /j/ always goes back to the preceding vowel ( gull, war, army). Phoneme /j/ in this phonetic position appears in its allophone, usually called "And non-syllabic", which definitely indicates its proximity to a vowel /And/.
3. When a consonant or combination of consonants is at the end of a word ( cat, dispute, nose, coal, tail, repair), conditions are created for the formation of closed syllables.
It is necessary to distinguish between two positions of the final consonant: either at the end of a word in the flow of speech, or at the end of a word before a pause. In the first case, the final consonant or combination of consonants is adjacent not to the preceding vowel, but to the subsequent one, which is part of another word ( ku-pi-l a-na-us - "I bought a pineapple", ku-pi-l ma-shi-nu, ku-pi-l sko-vo-ro-du), even if there is already one or more consonants before that vowel. In the second case, there is no vowel after the final consonant. However, since the flow of speech in terms of articulation is a sequence of closing-opening movements (closing corresponds to a consonant, and opening to a vowel), it is quite possible to assume that after the consonant before the pause there will be a breaking movement, generating some very short vowel element. The resulting phonetic effect is determined by the nature of the particular consonant. Yes, final /r/ becomes multi-stressed and in duration approaches an unstressed syllable. Vowel sound after /r/ easily detected. Final voiceless plosives are characterized by aspiration and a longer explosion, in the spectrum of which certain areas of energy concentration, a kind of formants, are distinguished, which indicates the presence of a vocal element, only pronounced without the participation of the vocal cords, i.e. deaf. "Word cat, pronounced at the absolute end of a phrase, before the pause receives the following syllabic organization: ko-t"[Bondarko, 1998. P. 212]. In this regard, it is interesting to note that Professor A. I. Thomson, a linguist with a remarkably keen ear for phonetics, argued in 1922 that final hard consonants in Russian have s-shaped coloring, and the final soft ones - And-shaped. In this coloring Thomson saw a reflection of the reduced vowels [ ъ] And [ b] that existed in the Old Russian language. Final sonants lose their consonantal nature to a significant extent.
As a result, we can say that the open syllable structure characteristic of the Russian language also appears in the case of a final consonant before a pause. The opening movement following the closure produces a very short vowel element, which cannot be given a phonemic attribution. This is a purely phonetic syllable, in contrast to ordinary "phonemic" syllables, in which the phonemic nature of the components can be established without difficulty.
Ticket No. 1
1. Alphabet. Vowels and consonants.
Alphabet - a collection of letters standing in in a certain order
The letters of the Russian alphabet are divided into three groups:
1) 10 vowel letters: a, o, u, s, e, i, e, e, yu, i;
2) consonant letters - 21: b, v, g, d, j, zh, z, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, sch;
3) 2 letters that do not represent sounds: ъ And ъ.
There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet.
There are six vowel sounds in the Russian literary language: And, uh, s, a, o, y. They are most clearly heard under stress.
Yotated vowels (letters representing two sounds). Represents two sounds, if they are:
I - [ya] Yu- [yu] E - [ye] Yo - [yo]
· at the beginning of a word (hedgehog, apple, spinning top)
· after b and b (eat, family, get up)
· after vowels (sing, union, military)
Letters e, i, yu, e stand for one sound[e], [a], [y], [o] after a consonant only under stress.
century - [v "ek", ball - [m "ach"], blues - [bl "us], honey - [m "ot]
In without shock position these letters after a consonant indicate the sound [and]
rows [r’ and d y] forests [l’ and s o k]
Paired consonants
Unpaired dull sounds– 5: [x], [x’] [ts], [h’], [w’].
Unpaired voiced sounds– 9: [l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [p], [p’], [th’].
Always hard consonants:[zh], [w], [ts].
Always soft consonants:[h’], [sch’], [th’].
Unpaired ringing sounds
[l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [r], [r’] are called sonorant, which means “sonorous” in Latin.
2. Phrase. Methods of communication in a phrase
Collocation- is a connection of two or more significant words, related in meaning and grammatically, serving to dissect a single concept (object, quality, action, etc.).
In a subordinating phrase, one word is the main word, and the other is dependent (you can ask a question about it from the main word). There are three types of connections between words in a phrase:
· Coordination- a type of connection in which the dependent word agrees with the main word in gender, number, case. The main word
always a noun; the subordinate clause can be an adjective, participle or pronoun. Examples: beautiful hat, about an interesting story under the same name.
· Control- view subordinating connection, where the dependent word is with the main word in the form of the indirect case.
· Adjacency- a type of connection in which the dependence of a word is expressed lexically, by word order and intonation, without
applications function words or morphological change. Formed by adverbs, infinitives and gerunds, as well as possessive pronouns of the 3rd person, simple form comparative degree adjective or adverb. Examples: sing beautifully, lie quietly, very tired, walked leisurely, older boy.
Ticket No. 2
1. Noun
Noun (noun) - a significant (independent) part of speech, belonging to the category of name and the class of full-valued lexemes, can appear in a sentence as the subject, object and nominal part of the predicate. In Russian - independent part speech denoting an object and answering a question "who?"/"what?". One of the main lexical categories; in sentences, a noun, as a rule, acts as a subject or object, as well as an adverbial and predicate.
Constant signs of a noun
- Common noun (Common noun or proper noun)
- Animation
- Discharge (concrete, real, abstract, collective)
- Declension
Common and proper noun
Common nouns serve common name single item class: article, house, computer etc.
The transition of common nouns to proper names is accompanied by the loss of the name linguistic concept(for example, “Desna” from “desna” - “right”). N. and. There are concrete (table), non-specific or complex conceptual (love), material or material (sugar), and collective (students).
Proper nouns serve as a name specific subject, distinguished from the class of homogeneous ones: Ivan, America, Everest.
Grammar
A noun has a number of which in different languages various. Like this:
gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, there are also common and reciprocal nouns);
· case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional);
· number (singular, plural);
· animation.
All nouns have one of 3 declensions:
· Nouns of the 1st declension - masculine and feminine nouns ending in the nominative case singular -a, -i, For example, dad, mom, family.
· Nouns of the 2nd declension - masculine and neuter nouns ending in the nominative singular: null ending For masculine And zero or -o, -e for neuter gender, for example, window, dove, table.
· Nouns of the 3rd declension - feminine nouns in the nominative singular form zero ending, for example, mouse, shawl, lie.
One more grammatical feature noun is animate/inanimate. In Russian words dead man, deceased, doll, tumbler, matryoshka and some others are animate. Moreover, the word dead body is classified as inanimate. There are also occasional animate nouns. For example: There were no crayfish in the river, But He ate crayfish.
2. Distinctive features simple sentence. Types of offers
Types of offers
Simple sentence- This syntactic unit, formed by one syntactic
connection between subject and predicate or one main member.
Two-part sentence is a simple sentence with a subject and predicate as
necessary components: They laughed. He was smart. The cloud is black, heavy in outline.
One-part sentence is a simple sentence in which there is only one main
member (with dependent words or without them). There are one-part sentences:
A sentence does not always express a thought; it can express a question, an impulse, a will, an emotion. Accordingly, proposals are of the following types:
· Narrative (declarative) a sentence reports some fact, action or event
· Interrogative sentence encourages the interlocutor to answer the speaker’s question.
· Incentive the sentence contains the will of the speaker, expressing an order, request or plea. Incentive offers distinguished by: incentive intonation, predicate in the form of the imperative mood, the presence of particles that introduce an incentive connotation into the sentence (come on, let it be).
· exclamation point the sentence expresses the emotions of the speaker, which is conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Declarative, interrogative, and incentive sentences can also be exclamatory.
If a sentence contains only a subject and a predicate, then it is called undistributed, otherwise - widespread.
The offer is considered simple, if it contains one predicative unit, if more - complex.
If a sentence contains both a subject and a predicate, it is called two-part, otherwise - one-piece.
One-part sentences are divided into following types:
· Definitely personal the proposal is simple one-part sentence without a subject with a predicate verb, which with its personal endings indicates that the action named by it is performed by a certain, 1st or 2nd, person: I'm going home. Get dressed!
· Vaguely personal sentence - a simple one-part sentence without a subject, when the action is performed by an unspecified person: I was called to the director.
· Generalized-personal sentence - a simple one-part sentence without a subject with a predicate verb, where the subject of the action can be anyone: You can’t even pull a fish out of a pond without difficulty.
· Impersonal sentence - a simple one-part sentence with a predicate naming an action or state that is presented without the participation of the grammatical subject of the action: It was getting dark. It was already light. I'm thirsty. It was as if he suddenly shuddered. Under the thick foliage there was a smell of grass and forest.
· Infinitive sentence - a simple one-part sentence in which the predicate is expressed by an infinitive (a verb in indefinite form). In such sentences, the subject cannot be expressed by any word without changing the form of the predicate: Be silent! You've already got to go. If only I could make it in time!
· Nominative sentence - a simple one-part sentence in which the subject is expressed by a noun in the nominative case and there is no predicate (the predicate is expressed by the verb “to be” in the zero form): Summer morning. There is silence in the air.
Ticket No. 3
1. Types of morphemes. Alternation of sounds.
Morpheme(from the Greek morphe - form) - this is the smallest, further indivisible part words with meaning. Based on the nature of the meaning expressed and the function in a word, morphemes are divided into root and auxiliary.
According to their role in a word, morphemes are divided into:
· root
· service (affixal).
Root morphemes- these are the roots of words that make up the lexical base of the word. Ideally, it is a mandatory part of the word.
Service morphemes, or affixes- formulate a word as a lexical-grammatical unit in the system of parts of speech. These are optional parts of the word. These include:
· prefix (prefix) – significant part words that come before its root and complement or change the meaning
words. Russian language prefixes are divided into three groups. The prefixes of the first group are always written the same way, regardless of pronunciation. These are the prefixes: in-(in-)(inzo-), you-, before-, for-(iso-), co-, on-, over-(need-), not-(under-), o-, about-( obo-), from-(oto-), pa-, po-, under-(podo-), pra-, pre-(predo-), pro-, razo-, s-(co-), su-, y-. Prefixes of the second group - all prefixes ending in Z and S: without-(bes-), up-(all-), out-(re-), out-(is-), bottom-(nis-), time-(ras-), rose-(ros-), through -(through-). Prefixes belonging to the third group: pre- and pre-. There are a total of 70 prefixes in the Russian language.)
· suffix - a significant part of a word that is located after the root and serves to form new words or forms
the same word: water - water, stove - stove-maker; new - newest, run - ran, strong - stronger, dear - dear, obedient - most humble, lie-l-a - lie-t, past-l-a - paste-ti
The suffix is not mandatory element words. A word can have one or more suffixes: easy-o, chit-a-tel, image-ova-nn-ost.
· interfix (connecting vowel) - connecting word-forming morpheme, which stands out in
composition difficult words. The most commonly used are interfixes -O-, -E-: steam-o-voz, birds-e-eating, lower-e-signed, little-o-educated, higher-e-named.
· ending – a service morpheme expressing grammatical (sometimes word-formative) meaning and
performing an inflectional function. The ending can be materially expressed or zero. Example: chair-bedØ – chair-beds, fiftyØ – fifty
· postfix – a service morpheme that comes after the ending and expresses word-formation or
grammatical meaning. The name has a derivational meaning; the postfix is part of the stem of the word. In Russian there is a verbal postfix -SIA (-S) for reflexive verbs and verb forms: washing, washing.
Based on their role in the formation and functioning of words, morphemes are distinguished:
· word-forming
· formative.
Word-forming morphemes change the lexical meaning of a word and serve to form new words:
cheerfulness, cheerfulness.
There are different ways of forming words that word formation studies.
Formative morphemes serve to form forms of the same word without changing its lexical meaning: bod-y – bod-ary – bod-oe, talk – gover-yash-y – go-vosh-y.
There are several ways to form word forms.
Alternation of sounds in Russian
Alternating called the natural replacement of one sound by another in the basics related words or in the stem forms of the same word, for example: serve X– serve w at ( X alternates with w ); sbr O sit - sbr A dump ( O alternates with A );in h it-in and at (h alternates with and ).
Not only sounds, but also sound combinations can alternate: szh A t-szh them at ( A alternates with them ). The sound can alternate with zero sound: With O n–sna, bite O k, – piece-a ( O alternates with zero, sound).
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All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Page creation date: 2017-03-31
Issues covered:
1. Types of alternations of sounds.
2. Positional alternations sounds:
a) positional alternations of vowel sounds;
b) positional alternations of consonant sounds.
3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants.
Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, sound position, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,constriction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, deafening of consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations of sounds, phonetic transcription.
1. Types of alternations of sounds
During speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this replacement is permanent, regular, and explained by the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relationship of regular replacement of some sounds with others in the same phonetic conditions is called alternating.
Alternations associated with the position of a sound are called positional alternations. Alternations caused by phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.
All types of sound alternations can be presented in the following table:
Types of sound alternations
|
positional (changes in sounds associated with their position) |
historical (changes in sounds due to phonetic processes that took place in the past) |
|
|
actually positional (sound changes related only to the position of sounds) |
combinatorial (changes related to the position of sounds and the influence of sounds on each other) |
|
|
vowel reduction; deafening at the end of consonants |
accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution |
|
Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and therefore words, since alternations are associated with the relationships of sounds (phonemes) within a system, where units are connected to each other in some way. In language, there are two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) – relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) – relations of unification of homogeneous units based on associations.
In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and recognizing similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of sound, is paradigmatic (for example, when a speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] are the same typical sound).
2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)
Sounds in a stream of speech are pronounced with different strengths and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position – this is its immediate environment, as well as its position at the beginning, at the end of a word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels, its position in relation to stress.
There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.
Positional changes – these are changes in sound associated with its position (for example, deafening at the end of a word, weakening of unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of Positional Changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, prolapse (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.
Combinatorial changes – these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types of positional changes, except for deafening at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with position in a word, and not with the influence of other sounds.
2 a) Positional alternations of vowel sounds
The main type of positional changes in vowel sounds is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative reduction – decrease in length and sound strength - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation of [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). High-quality reduction– weakening with some change in sound. For example, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are in an unstressed position. Wed: sound of vowels in words hammer And hammer: [molt], [mlLtok].
The sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and in absolute beginning words and as a reduced sound [ъ] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress, for example, milk– [milLko], beard– [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] – rowan[r"i e b"in], hourly[h"sLvoy].
The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [and e], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight– [p"r"i e l"ot].
IN foreign words qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano– [рLjал"], but boa[boa], remark[r"and e mark], but metro[m "etro".
Positional changes in vowel sounds undergoing reduction can be presented in the following table:
|
accent strong position |
Unstressed positions |
|||
|
absolute beginning of a word the beginning of the word after [j], first pre-stressed syllable 1 weak position |
other pre- and post-strike positions 2 weak position |
|||
|
after TV |
after soft |
after TV |
after soft |
|
|
clouds |
five [p'i e t'i] |
field [p'l'i e howl] |
private [р'дLв́й] |
|
|
wife [zhy e na] |
forests [l i e sa] |
tin [zh's't'i e no] |
heroism [g'рLism] |
|
Combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sounds and are called accommodation. Wed. pronunciation of [o] in words they say[they say], chalk[m’·ol], mole[mo·l’]. Accommodation can be progressive (®): chalk[m’·ol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo·l’].
Thus, characterizing changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (reduction is qualitative, quantitative or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonant sounds (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, birch[b'i e r'oz]:
[and e] – positional changes(in relation to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.
[·o] – there are no positional changes, because stressed vowel; combinatorial changes – progressive accommodation.
[ъ] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; there are no combinatorial changes.
2 b) Positional alternations of consonant sounds
As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed. the sound of the sound [t] in words – So And That: [sic] – [t o from].
Much more common than accommodation are other changes in consonant sounds.
Assimilation – similarity on any basis. Assimilation happens:
- by proximity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
- by the nature of the change by deafness/voice And hardness/softness;
- in the direction of influence – progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(exposure to sounds from right to left (¬);
- in terms of completeness of comparison: full And partial.
The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: fairy tale– [skask] – voiced [z] under the influence of the deaf [k] assimilated into the deaf paired sound[With]. This is contact assimilation, partial regressive in deafness.
Whistling consonants before sibilants as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I'm driving .
D assimilation - separation of sounds. In Russian this process is rare. As a result of the process, sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft– [m "ahk"y], easy– [l "ohk"y]. Pairs of sounds or similar sounds that are identical in the method or place of formation are subject to dissimilation. Dissimilation may be contact And distant,progressive And regressive.
Distant progressive dissimilation occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, V colloquially kolidor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with pronunciation norm: th, hrs like [shn] – What[what] and - wow, -him like [ova], [iva]: blue– [s "in" ьвъ]! These alternations take place regularly, in the same positions, without exception, and have the character of a law.)
Contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [g'artskaya ® g'artskaya], [ts] ® [ts].
When groups of consonants are contracted, sound loss may occur: Sun- [son]. Usually these are combinations [vstv], [ntsk], [stl], etc.
Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:
Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)– (from the Greek diaresis – gap) – omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant– [g’igansk’iy].
Haplology– (from Greek gaplos – simple + logos – concept) omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralology, standard bearer, instead of standard bearer.
Metathesis– (from the Greek metathesis - rearrangement) rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from ticket.
Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, ndrav instead of disposition, scorpijon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, the sound [th] in a word coffee(from coffee), sound [v] in a word singer(from sang) in literary speech.
Substitution– (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic of the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[в] instead of [w].
3. Historical alternations of sounds
Regular changes in sounds, not related to position in a word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:
vowel alternation:
[ e] –[ i] –[ o] –[ a] – [Ø] // sound zero: died - die; pestilence - to kill - I will die; take – collect – collection – collect;
[e] – [Ø] sound zero: stump - stump; faithful - faithful; wind - wind;
[o] – [Ø] – zero sound: forehead - forehead; bottomless - bottom; lie - to lie;
[s] – [Ø] – zero sound: send –ambassador - to send.
Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:
[i] – [th] – [her] – [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;
[ s] – [ oh] – [ ov] – [ aw]: dig – swarm – ditch; swim – swimmer – swim; cover – cut – cover;
[y] – [ov] – [ev]: kuyu – forge; I draw - to draw; peck - peck;
[a] – [im] – [m]: reap – shake – press;
[a] – [in] – [n]: reap - reap - reap.
consonant alternation:
[g] – [g] – [z]: friend - to be friends - friends; run - run; moisture – wet;
[k] – [h]: scream - shout; hand - manual; bake - bakes;
[x] – [w]: quiet - silence; dry – land; stuffiness - stuffy;
[z] – [z"] – [zh]: thunderstorm - threaten - threaten; carry - drive; smear - smear; climb - I get along;
[s] – [s"] – [w]: bring – carry – burden; scythe - mow - mow; ask - demand - request; high - height - higher;
[t] – [t"] – [h] – [w"]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return – return – return;
[d] – [f] – [zh]: gardens - planting - planting;
[n] – [n"]: change - change; torn - torn;
[l] – [l"]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;
[r] – [r"]: blow - to hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;
[b] – [b"] – [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;
[p] – [p"] – [pl"]: pour out - rash - pour out;
[v] – [v"] – [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;
[f] – [f"] – [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;
[sk] – [st] – [s"t"] – [w":]: shine - shine - sparkle - shines; start - let - lower;
[sk] – [w":]: crackle - crackle;
[st] – [w"]: whistle - whistle
4. Phonetic transcription
Phonetic transcription is a recording sounding speech special signs. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the nuances of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, e, yu, i. Letters ъ, ь are used in a different meaning. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È .... Ç. Basic signs adopted in phonetic transcription:
– square brackets to highlight transcribed sound units;
/ – a sign above the letter to indicate emphasis;
’ – a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;
L– a sign to indicate the sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after hard consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [сLды́], ;
ъ– a sign to indicate unstressed sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of the word: gardener– [sudLvot], young– [мълЛд΄й], as well as the unstressed sound [e] after unsoftened [zh], [sh], [ts] in all unstressed positions, except for the first one before the stress: cement– [tsam’i e nt’i΄arv’t’].
b– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly– [h’sLvoy], forester– [l’sLvot];
and uh– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest– [l’i e snoy]; nickel- [p’i tak].
s uh – a sign to indicate a sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants f, w, c: regret– [zhy e l’et΄t’], price– [tsy e na΄],
γ – letter to indicate the fricative consonant indicated by the letter G in words: yeah, lord;
È – a bow under the line between words indicates a combined pronunciation of a function and an independent word: in rows– [пъ È р’ и е damam];
j– a letter to indicate the sound [th] at the beginning of words e,yo,yu, I, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , rise– [pLдjo΄м], his– [svj i e vo΄];
Ç – the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].
/ – mark of a beat pause when transcribing spoken speech: [s’i e rg’e΄ay / my friend//]
// – phrasal pause sign when transcribing spoken speech:
[dom / and È s’t’e΄any pamLga΄jut //] .
Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the peculiarities of the pronunciation of a word in a particular area are recorded, when studying children's speech, as well as when mastering the correct literary pronunciation words
Literary pronunciation of words in the Russian language presupposes compliance with certain norms, which are reflected in the rules of transcription.
5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants
Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowel sounds:
1. The vowels O, A, E (in spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.
2. In all unstressed positions after hard consonants, except the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika– [b llLlayk]; gardening .
The vowels I, Y, U do not change during pronunciation.
3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription they are conveyed by the sign - [вLда́]. This type of pronunciation is called let's say. Norm literary language- aka pronunciation.
4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If a word has a preposition, it is one thing in the flow of speech phonetic word and transcribed according to general rule: to the garden[in ъглр΄т];
5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Z) is pronounced as I and transcribed using the [and e] sign: watch[ch'i e sy].
6. The vowel E (in spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as I and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l’i e snoy]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced unclearly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the sign [b]: forester– [l’sLvot], copse– [p'р' и е l'е΄сък].
7. The letters E, E, Yu, I are not used in transcription; in their place the sounds corresponding to the pronunciation (audible) are written: ball[m’ach’], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], apple , rise[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prolstornj jь].
8. After the hard consonants Ж, Ш, Ц in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letter E in the transcription the sign [ы е] is written: want– [zhy e lat’], price– [tsi e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is conveyed by the sign [ъ]: yellowish[yellow].
9. After Zh, Sh, C in the shock position instead of the position spelling rules And in the transcription the pronounced [s] is written: number– [cy΄fr], lived– [lived], sewed- [whispered].
Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonant sounds:
In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are deafened. Accommodation processes of consonant sounds (for example, rounding of the sound [t o ] in a word here) are usually not reflected in the transcriptions we use.
