In linguistics, the concept of phraseology is used in two meanings:
1) Branch of linguistics, the science of phraseological units and idioms.
2) A set of phraseological units and idioms of the language.
The vocabulary of a language includes not only words, but also stable combinations of words, which also serve as a means of expressing concepts. Such phrases are called phraseological units (PU).
The concept of a phraseological unit (French Unité phrasеologique) as stable phrase, the meaning of which cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituent words, was first formulated by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally in his work “Prеcis de stylistique”, where he contrasted them with another type of phrases - phraseological groups (French Sеries phrasеologiques) with a variable combination of components. Bally used the term phraseologie in the meaning of “a branch of stylistics that studies related phrases,” but this term did not acquire citizenship rights in the works of Western European and American linguists and is used in three other meanings: 1) choice of words, form of expression, formulation; 2) language, syllable, style; 3) expressions, phrases.
Subsequently, the study of phraseology developed widely in Soviet linguistics in the 1940-70s, based primarily on the Russian language, but also on a number of others. The literature on the subject is enormous. A variety of definitions of the object of study and its categories and experiences of classification of phraseological units are given, both compatible and complementary to each other, as well as contradictory to one another.
There are various definitions and classifications of phraseological units. Kunin defines a phraseological unit as a stable combination of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning.
According to the definition presented in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, phraseological units are “stable phrases characterized by constancy of lexical composition and complicated semantics.” The meaning of a phraseological unit, as indicated later in the same article, is not divided into elements corresponding to the elements of its external form.
V.V. In his definition, Vinogradov contrasts phraseological units with free phrases. He believed that phraseological units are “stable word complexes, opposed to free syntactic combinations as ready-made language education, not created, but only reproduced in speech.”
Kunin believes that “the stability of PU is based on its inherent various types invariance, i.e. the immutability of certain elements under all regulatory changes” and offers 5 signs of invariability of phraseological units.
1) Stability of use: phraseological unit is an element of the vocabulary of the language and is used in finished form.
2) Structural-semantic stability: phraseological units do not have a typical meaning, that is, they cannot serve as a model for creating similar phraseological units according to the structural-semantic model.
3) Semantic stability: the new rethought meaning of the phraseological unit remains unchanged.
4) Lexical stability: i.e. impossibility of replacing elements of phraseological units.
5) Syntactic stability, i.e. complete immutability of the order of the components of phraseological units.
Based on the integrity of the meaning, phraseological units can be compared with a word. The term “word equivalent” was created by L.V. Shcherba. He emphasized that such a group of words denotes one concept and is a potential equivalent of the word. Like a word, phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity/ambiguity; A phraseological unit can enter into synonymous, antonymic, homonymous relationships both with other phraseological units and with words. Along with the word, the phraseological unit is a unit of nomination, but it has an indirectly nominative meaning, which is created through metaphorization and metonymization of the component words included in the phraseological unit. Phraseology also studies proverbs and sayings, which have a sentence structure.
Being ready-made nominative units operating on equal rights with a word, phraseological phrases include integral part into the vocabulary of a language and, accordingly, are subject to consideration in lexicology, in contrast to free phrases that constitute the subject of syntax. Of course, between phraseological and free phrases there is a large number of phrases of a transitional type, the “free” or “phraseological” nature of which is not revealed with a sufficient degree of clarity or certainty.
Many phrases with a sentence structure have the property of reproducibility, including proverbs, sayings, idioms, literary quotes, phrase stamps, etc. It is they who become the subject of lively discussions and diametrically opposed decisions, depending on which the volume of phraseology changes.
1) V.V. Vinogradov, V.L. Arkhangelsky, A.V. Kunin, include sentences reproduced in speech as part of phraseology;
2) A.I. Smirnitsky, who in no way denies the possibility of sentences entering the language system and assigns them an appropriate place in his classification, nevertheless denies them the status of phraseological units and takes them beyond the boundaries of phraseology.
3) N.N. Amosov, refers to phraseology only those sentences that have a holistic meaning and constitute a constant context, and when included in a variable sentence do not turn it into a complex one, i.e. they act as units of nomination, not communication. Proverbs and sayings that carry a communicative meaning are part of phraseology, according to N.N. Amosova, do not belong.
4) Some linguists, including sayings in phraseology, exclude proverbs from it on the basis that the latter are the equivalent of a whole story, description of events, etc.
Thus, in linguistics there is no consensus on the scope and boundaries of phraseology.
The meaning of PHRASEOLOGICAL UNIT in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNIT
(phraseologism, phraseological turn). A lexically indivisible phrase, stable in its composition and structure, complete in meaning, reproduced in the form of a finished speech unit. From the point of view of semantic cohesion, they differ:
1) Phraseological adhesions (idioms). Phraseological phrases with absolute semantic cohesion of parts, the integral meaning of which is not derived from the meanings of their constituent words (often outdated, preserving archaic grammatical form and not justified modern rules syntactic connection). To beat one's head, to be amazed, to be amazed, to have a railway, out of nowhere, to have a caesarean section, without hesitation, to be left with one's nose, headlong, put one's hand on one's heart, to get into trouble, to eat a dog, to sharpen balusters, to celebrate a coward, to tell a joke.
2) Phraseological unities. Phraseological units, the holistic meaning of which (usually figurative) is motivated to one degree or another separate values their constituent words. Fly into the chimney, hold the stone in your bosom, bring it to white heat, cast a fishing rod, bury a talent in the ground, tuck it into a belt, play hide and seek, red currant, break into open door, inclined plane, soap your head, zero attention, first violin, first pancake lumpy, go with the flow, put your teeth on the shelf, show off your eyes, seven Fridays a week, cecum, grind to powder, freezing point, pull the strap, specific gravity, go into your shell, center of gravity.
3) Phraseological combinations. Phraseological units, which include words with free and phraseological associated meaning, and the holistic meaning follows from the meaning of individual words. Castle in the air, exclamation mark, hurt pride, bosom friend, sworn enemy, touch the sense of honor, absolute hell, frown, win, lower your head, break your nose, burn with shame, show your teeth, sudden death, melancholy, bitter cold, a fragile boat, a delicate question, a delicate situation.
Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what a PHRASEOLOGICAL UNIT is in the Russian language in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- UNIT in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
(unit of language, linguistic unit) A segment of speech regularly reproduced as a certain unity of content and expression. Phonetic unit (phoneme). Morphological unit (morpheme). ... - UNIT
STAFF - see STAFF UNIT ... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
TRADE - on the futures commodity exchange: standard size a contract involving the delivery of a strictly defined quantity of goods; the deal can be concluded at 10... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
ACCOUNTS - a monetary unit in terms of which prices are set and calculations are made, for example ... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
SUM INSURED - quantitatively expressed part insurance amount, which serves as the basis for setting tariffs and calculating payments... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
TRANSACTIONS - minimal amount goods or securities necessary for the transaction... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
TAXATION - a unit of taxation scale that is used to quantify the tax base. Thus, the scale of the tax on vehicle owners is ... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
SAVINGS - a share of the collective annuity fund, which is determined by dividing total amount fund by the number of accumulation units. Used during... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
MEASUREMENTS - a quantity in which other quantities similar to it are expressed. There are natural, conditionally natural and cost... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
MONETARY - see MONETARY UNIT ... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
ANNUITY - a unit of accumulation of reserves in a collective ... - UNIT in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
ADMINISTRATIVE-TERRITORIAL - see ADMINISTRATIVE-TERRITORIAL ... - UNIT
- UNIT
1) the smallest of natural numbers n 1. When any number is multiplied by 1, the same number is obtained. 2) ... - UNIT V Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, -y, w. 1. In mathematics: real number, multiplication by a number does not change any number. 2. The first category of multi-valued... - UNIT
UNIT, the smallest natural number n =1. In modern In mathematics, the concept of unit element (unit element) is considered in algebra. structures more general... - UNIT in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
units, units, units, units, units, units, units, units, units, units, units, units, units, … - UNIT in the Dictionary of the Great Russian Language of Business Communication:
million. One unit, two units, three units, etc. Synonym for lam... - UNIT in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-y, w. 1) A digit indicating the number 1. Bold unit. 2) Lowest Mark V five-point system. Get one. Synonyms: ... - UNIT in the Dictionary for solving and composing scanwords:
Col, but not... - UNIT in the Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary:
- UNIT in the Russian Language Thesaurus:
1. ‘number’ Syn: one 2. ‘quantity by which other homogeneous quantities are measured’ Syn: unit ... - UNIT in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
one object, grain, piece, instance, example, head, soul, face, individual (individual), indivisible, individual, individual, person, monad. Spread how much on your brother... - UNIT in the Russian Synonyms dictionary:
number Syn: one quantity by which other homogeneous quantities are measured Syn: unit ... - UNIT in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
1. g. 1) The name of the first, smallest natural number. 2) The name of the digit denoting such a number. 3) The value taken as a basis... - UNIT in Lopatin’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
unit, -s, tv. ... - UNIT full spelling dictionary Russian language:
unit, -s, tv. ... - UNIT in the Spelling Dictionary:
unit, -s, tv. ... - UNIT in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
separate independent part as part of the whole, separate item(or person) in a group of similar fleet units. Economic e. Staffing units. ... - UNIT in Dahl's Dictionary:
wives one, the first in a row, and | numeral sign, expressing the number it is, 1; | every thing or object separately, by... - UNIT in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
the smallest natural number n = 1. In modern mathematics the concept of a unit (unit element) is considered in algebraic structures of a more general... - UNIT in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
units, f. 1. figure representing the number one (1). || Mark, the most lowest score in meaning "bad" (pre-revolutionary). The student received one... - PHRASEOLOGISM in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(phraseological unit idiom), a stable phrase that performs the function of a separate word, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent components (for example, “give back”... - PHRASEOLOGISM in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
phraseological unit, idiom, stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and known speakers of this language value (in... - PHRASEOLOGISM in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- PHRASEOLOGISM in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(phraseological unit, idiom), a stable phrase, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent components, for example: “to eat a dog” (in what, on what... - PHRASEOLOGISM in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
PHRASEOLOGICAL ISM (phraseological unit, idiom), performing the function of a department. words are a stable phrase, the meaning of which is not deducible from the meanings of its constituent components (for example, “give ... - PHRASEOLOGISM
(phraseological unit) - common name semantically related combinations of words and sentences, which, in contrast to those similar in form... - LINGUISTIC TERMINOLOGY in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from term and Greek logos - word, doctrine) - a set of words and phrases used in linguistics to express special concepts...
Modern linguistics is unthinkable without a comparison of the objects being studied. Comparison and contrast of units, forms, categories, categories and other linguistic phenomena acts as a prerequisite for characterizing each of them. The above fully applies to the study of phraseological units. Studying the similarities and differences between specific phraseological units of several languages removes difficulties in translation and facilitates the perception and understanding of speech.
One of the brightest stylistic means of speech is phraseological units or phraseological units (from the Greek phrases - figure of speech, logos - teaching). Phraseologisms are a stable expression with an independent meaning close to idiomatic. Phraseologisms represent great difficulties for English language learners. Ignorance of the semantics of phraseological units can lead to misunderstanding in the process of communication with native speakers and cause difficulties in translating fiction and scientific journalistic literature.
Object this study are phraseological units of two languages: English and Russian. However, not the entire phraseological range of these languages is studied, but only somatic phraseological units with the keyword “head”.
Somatic phraseological units are figures of speech that contain a component with the meaning of a body part. This lexical-semantic group was chosen due to its wide distribution, imagery and expressiveness.
The subject of this study is the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” - “head”.
1. Definition of a phraseological unit and its main components.
Researchers of the phraseological composition of compared languages have many opinions about what a phraseological unit is. The most well-known definitions of phraseological units are A. V. Kunin, I. I. Chernysheva, N. M. Shansky. Authors define their relevance to phraseological units in different ways various groups phrases. So, for example, Shansky N.M. includes proverbs, sayings, sayings in phraseological units, winged words, aphorisms. Phrasebook of the Russian language (FSRY) the phraseological units of the language include various descriptive and analytical figures of speech, complex alliances, complex prepositions, compound terms, etc. In general, a phraseological unit is characterized as “a combination of words with a figurative meaning”, as “a stable phrase with an idiomatic meaning”, as “ set phrase" Phraseologisms are characterized by metaphor, imagery, expressive and emotional coloring. Dictionary Russian language. Ozhegova S.I. and Shvedova N.Yu. gives following definition A phraseological unit is a stable expression with an independent meaning close to idiomatic. Phraseologism, phraseological unit, idiom, stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and a meaning known to native speakers of a given language (in most cases, figurative) that is not deduced from the meaning of the constituent phraseological components. This meaning is reproduced in speech in accordance with historically established norms of use.
But in our opinion, the most complete definition is A.V. Kunin:
A phraseological unit is a stable combination of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning.
Phraseological units consist of lexemes that have partially or completely lost their subject correlation. They cannot be distinguished as members of a sentence, since the phraseological unit itself is a member of the sentence.
Thus, phraseological units are understood as figures of speech consisting of two or more words, possessing reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, as well as holistic meaning.
1. 2. Types of phraseological units from the point of view of semantic stability (unity) of their components
The classification of phraseological units from the point of view of the semantic unity of their components belongs to Academician V. V. Vinogradov. As is known, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which is used in a figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased, how strong the figurative meaning is in them, V. V. Vinogradov divides them into four types: phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions. Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to modern English.
Phraseological adjunctions:
Phraseological units, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, general meaning which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words: keep one`s head - lose your head.
Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language.
Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.
Phraseological unities:
Phraseological unities are such stable combinations of words in which, if there is a common figurative meaning signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved: raise it’s head - raise your head, perk up.
“Phraseological unities are somewhat closer to phraseological fusions in their imagery and metaphor.” But unlike phraseological fusions, in phraseological unities figurativeness and portability are realized from the point of view of modern language.
Phraseological combinations:
Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a wooden head - a stupid head.
In contrast to phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, “phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability.” In this respect, they come close to free phrases.
Phraseological expressions:
Phraseological expressions include phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which consist entirely of words with “free nominative meaning and are semantically divisible.” Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.
Part phraseological expressions include numerous english proverbs and sayings that are used in a literal meaning do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion (it is better to be the first among the last than the last among the first).
Chapter 2. Characteristics of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head”.
2. 1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” according to the method of formation.
Depending on the method of formation, in our work we consider two main types of phraseological units: continuous phrases and semantic blocks.
Integrated phrases are formed by connecting components, each of which has structural and systemic phrase-forming properties.
Semantic blocks are formed by transforming the meaning of the entire phrase as a whole.
English language Russian language
Integrated phrases (phraseological units)
The first is the meaning of the original phrase, the second the meaning of phraseological units.
(leading component highlighted)
Put one's head into the lion's mouth. My head is (not) cooking
1. 1. Putting your head in the lion's mouth Someone is either (not) smart
1. 2. Expose yourself to danger or risk. Lather your head
Bury one's head in the sand. Scold for something
2. 1. Hide your head in the sand Plunge your head in
2. 2. Adhere to the ostrich policy, turn a blind eye to what is happening. 3. 1. Dedicate yourself entirely to something
Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.
3. 1. It is better to be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.
3. 2. It is better to be the first among ordinary people than the last among the nobles.
Semantic blocks (phraseological units)
(the meaning of the original phrase is given first, the meaning of the phraseological unit is given second)
1. Be head and ears in debt (to be deeply in debt). Head up
2. Go about with one’s head in the air. (to put on airs). 1. 1. Feel confident
3. Have a bad head for smth. (to be in a bad head). 2. Bow your head
4. Open one’s head (chatter, chat). 1. 2. Reconcile
3. From head to toe
3. 1. Completely
Of the 68 English phraseological units that made up the card index English phraseological units, 57 are semantic blocks, and 11 are continuous phrases. And of the 33 Russian phraseological units that made up the Russian card index, 24 were semantic blocks, and 9 were continuous phrases.
Conclusion: Having analyzed the data, we came to the conclusion that most often phraseological units, both English and Russian, are formed by rethinking free phrases, transforming the knowledge of the entire phrase as a whole.
1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” in structure.
Depending on the nature of the leading component, one can distinguish, both in English and in Russian phrases: substantive (the main component is a noun), adverbial (adverbial), verbal, adjective.
English language Russian language
Substantives A good head Head and two ears (Unsmart
(Strong head) man)
A level head Head on shoulders
(balanced person)
(Smart enough)
Verb: Hang one's head
(Hang your head, be upset) (Be very depressed)
Lose one's head No pat on the head
(Lose your head, (Be very depressed)
get confused)
Adjective: Out of one’s alone head There are no such phraseological units in the studied dictionaries
(Fictional)
Adverbial: Head first Headlong
(Quickly, recklessly) (Quickly, recklessly)
One's head off
(as much as you like)
In the Russian card index of 33 phrases: substantive – 7, verbal – 22, adverbial – 4, no adjectival ones were found. In the English card index of 68, substantive – 6, verbal – 42, adverbial – 6, adjective – 2. Thus, in both the English and Russian card index, verb combinations and adverbial combinations predominate, substantives are less common and adjectival ones practically do not occur.
2. 3. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head” by syntactic function in speech.
You can also classify phraseological units according to their syntactic function. In this case, we can distinguish phraseological combinations that appear in a sentence as:
subject: Vanya, a garden head, got a bad grade in class.
John, a swelled head, was a stubborn boy.
John, an arrogant man, was very stubborn.
Predicate: They put their heads together and agreed upon He laid down his head in the war.
They immediately discussed everything and determined a plan of action.
Circumstance: They made head against the wind. He looked her over from head to toe and decided to take her to
They walked and walked forward towards the wind. to work.
Addition: You are turn her head with flattery! I bow my head to you.
You'll turn her head!
Having studied syntactic functions phraseological combinations, we noticed that both English and Russian phraseological units rarely act as a subject.
So, comparing internal structure English and Russian phraseological units by method of formation and structural classification, we came to the conclusion that the structure of English and Russian phraseological units coincides in these parameters. This makes it possible to make an assumption about the relationship between these groups of phraseological units.
2. 4. Semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword “head” in English and Russian languages.
Native speakers use words that name their organs to describe various areas of human activity. This includes cognitive processes(sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination), volitional and emotional, as well as the manifestation of various mental properties of the individual. The bulk of phraseological units in both languages are based on metaphor.
The vast majority of phraseological units are anthropocentric in nature, that is, they relate to a person or something connected with him. These turnovers are of an estimated nature. Ratings can be both positive and negative.
Having analyzed phraseological units with the keyword “head” in English and Russian, we divided them into three thematic groups:
1. Phraseological units denoting human mental abilities.
2. Phraseological units denoting emotional condition person.
3. Phraseological units characterizing human behavior and actions.
Group 1: Phraseological units denoting human mental abilities.
English language Russian language
1. Have an old head on young shoulders1. Soft in the head 1. Plunge headlong (entirely 1. My head is spinning (Losing the ability
(to be wise). (not everyone is at home, idiot). devote oneself to something). easy to understand).
2. Two heads are better than one 2. Have a head like a sieve (to be 2. Raise your head 2. Head and two ears
(a mind is good, but two are better). scattered). (Feel confident). (unsmart person).
Group 2: Phraseological units denoting a person’s emotional state.
English language Russian language
1. Keep one’s head 1. Be not right in one’ head 1. Raise your head 1. Hang your head
(keep calm). (to be out of your mind, to go crazy). (feel confident). (become despondent).
2. Be head and ears in love 2. Have a bad head for heights. 2. Lose your head
(to be head over heels in love). (tolerate poorly (not knowing from excitement what to do, what heights, being afraid of heights). do).
Group 3: Phraseological units characterizing human behavior and actions.
English language Russian language
1. Buy smth over smb’s head 1. Better one’s head against a brick 1. About two heads 1. Lather your head
(offer a more profitable service). wall (recklessly boldly). (to scold for something).
2. Knock smth on the head (get into trouble). 2. Headlong
(put an end to something). 2. Be head and ears in debt (to be quickly).
ears in debt).
mental abilities +7; -2 +4; -7
emotional state +2; -11 +1; -3
behavior and actions +9; -14 +1; -eleven
As the analysis shows, the number of phraseological units with a positive evaluative meaning in each of the three presented groups prevails in the English language.
Having carried out a meaningful analysis of phraseological units with the keyword, head in the Russian language, we assumed that the presence of phraseological units denoting daring, recklessness, recklessness reflects such characteristic feature characteristic of the Russian mentality as “maximalism”. Conversely, the presence in the English language of a large number of phraseological units with a positive evaluative characteristic of people’s actions and their mental activity can be a confirmation of the presence in the English national character of such traits as “clarity of mind, restraint, equanimity.”
Conclusion.
The first chapter of this work gives a definition of a “phraseological unit”, examines its main components and reveals the main characteristics of phraseological units from the point of view of semantic stability (cohesion) of their components.
In the second chapter, an attempt is made to analyze the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head”, to carry out qualitative analysis phraseological units in each of the studied groups, draw conclusions on the topic. Comparison and analysis of phraseological units was carried out according to the following parameters: by method of formation, by structure, by syntactic function in speech Separate chapter is devoted to the semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword “head” in English and Russian languages. Having analyzed the data, we came to the conclusion that most often phrases are used as a whole, that is, semantic blocks (phraseological units) predominate. In both languages, verb combinations predominate; substantive and adverbial combinations are less common. In sentences, phraseological units with the keyword “head” most often act as an object, less often as a subject.
As the analysis shows semantic features phraseological units, the number of them with a positive evaluative meaning, in each of the three presented groups, prevail in the English language. This chapter presents to us special interest, since in the future we will try to consider in more detail phraseological units with the keywords “head”, “eyes” and “hands” from the point of view of their semantic features in English and Russian languages. We believe that this comparison will help us more accurately understand the similarities and differences in features national character representatives of the two countries. In addition, knowledge of the semantics of phraseological units will help to correctly translate these constructions, correctly determining the desired meaning in a given context.
Undoubtedly, vocabulary language is subject to change. The phraseological composition changes and is replenished.
Modern language, but are grammatical archaisms. Examples of such expressions in Russian would be: “stay on your toes”, “kick back”, “fight back”, “play the fool”, “point of view”, “without a king in your head”, “soul to soul”, “sewn by whites” threads" and the like.
Classification (phraseological units)[ | ]
The concept of phraseological units (French unité phraséologique) as a stable phrase, the meaning of which cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituent words, was first formulated by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally in the work “ Precis de stylistique", where he contrasted them with another type of phrases - (French séries phraséologiques) with a variable combination of components. Subsequently, V.V. Vinogradov identified three main types of phraseological units:
General properties [ | ]
A phraseological unit is used as a whole that is not subject to further decomposition and usually does not allow rearrangement of its parts within itself. The semantic unity of phraseological units can vary within fairly wide limits: from the non-deducibility of the meaning of a phraseological unit from its constituent words to the meaning arising from the meanings that make up the combinations. Transforming a phrase into a stable phraseological unit is called lexicalization.
Different scientists interpret the concept differently phraseology and its properties, however, the most consistently identified by various scientific properties of a phraseological unit are:
- (separate design);
- to belong to.
Phraseological adjunctions (idioms)[ | ]
Phraseological fusion or idiom (from Greek. ἴδιος - “own, characteristic”) is a semantically indivisible phrase, the meaning of which is completely indeducible from the sum of the meanings of its constituent components, their semantic independence is completely lost. For example, " sodom and gomorrah" - "turmoil, noise." When translating phraseological units literally, a foreigner usually cannot understand their general meaning: in English. to show the white feather - “accuse of cowardice” (literally - “show the white feather”, in England a white feather was given to draft dodgers during the war) not a single word hints at the meaning of the entire phrase.
Phraseological unities[ | ]
Phraseological unity is a stable turnover, in which, however, the signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved. As a rule, its overall meaning is motivated and inferred from the meaning of the individual components.
Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in a phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then it is a proverb or a catchphrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. The category of phraseological expressions also includes speech cliches - stable formulas like “ best wishes», « see you again" and so on.
Melchuk's classification[ | ]
- The linguistic unit affected by phraseologization:
- Participation of pragmatic factors in the process of phraseologization:
- Component of a linguistic sign subject to phraseologization:
- Degree of phraseologization:
In general, as a result of such a calculation, Melchuk identifies 3×2×3×3=54 types of phrasemes.
see also [ | ]
Notes [ | ]
Literature [ | ]
- Amosova N. N. Basics of English phraseology. - L., 1963.
- Arsentyeva E. F. Phraseology and phraseography in a comparative aspect (based on the material of the Russian and English languages). - Kazan, 2006.
- Valgina N. S., Rosenthal D. E., Fomina M. I. Modern Russian language. - 6th ed. - M.: Logos, 2002.
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Phraseology is a branch of the science of language that studies the phraseological system in its current state And historical development. The object of study of phraseology is phraseological units. The subject of phraseology as a branch of linguistics is the study of the categorical features of phraseological units, on the basis of which the main features of phraseological units are identified and the question of the essence of phraseological units as special units of language is resolved, as well as the identification of patterns of functioning of phraseological units in speech and the processes of their formation. However, despite the existence of a large number of studies on the main issues of phraseology, it has not yet developed common approach to the definition of a phraseological unit of language.
There are a large number of definitions of the concept “phraseological unit”. According to A.V. Kunin, “phraseological units are stable combinations of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning.”
V.M. Mokienko says that a phraseological unit is a relatively stable, reproducible, expressive combination of lexemes that has a holistic meaning.
Since phraseological units are recognized as units of language, along with words and morphemes, some researchers include phraseological units in the vocabulary of the language, and phraseological units are considered as equivalents of words. As a result, the theory of the equivalence of phraseological units to words deserves special consideration. It goes back to the theory of identification of expressive facts developed by S. Bally, who pointed out that one of the most common features a phraseological phrase that replaces all others is the possibility or impossibility of substituting one simple word instead of a given phrase. Charles Bally called this word “an identifier word.” Sh. Bally considers the presence of such a synonym as an internal sign of the integrity of phraseological units. This point of view raises certain objections. V.P. Zhukov notes that “the semantic integrity of a phraseological unit cannot be established in this way, since variable combinations of words can have synonymous words.” For example, in Russian:
fall asleep forever- die;
side by side - near.
In English:
tolookfixedly - to stare (look closely - stare); sufferingofmindandbody - to pain (suffer body and soul - get sick).
In addition, many phraseological units do not have identifier words, but can only be identified using variable phrases, for example, in Russian:
behind seven castles- well hidden;
In English:
to drink like a fish - to drink too much(binge drinking - drinking too much);
in a small way - on a small scale (modestly - to be at the lowest level).
It should also be borne in mind that phraseological units with sentence structure, i.e. proverbs and sayings can only be identified using sentences, for example in Russian:
Taking the bull by the horns- not being afraid to start a business;
In English:
Birds of feather flock together- (a fisherman sees a fisherman from afar - people who have the same interests, are attracted to each other and stay close together).
JI.V. Shcherba used the term “word equivalent.” The researcher said that such a group of words denotes one concept and is a potential equivalent of the word. Thus, a close group of words can denote one concept if it is a phrase.
In the problem of “phraseologism and the word,” two directions are noted: the lexicological understanding of phraseology as an integral part of lexicology, phraseological units as an equivalent to the word, and a broad understanding of phraseology as an independent discipline. Some supporters of the theory of complete equivalence consider phraseological units as lexical units, which need special classification, and which should be classified in the same way that words are classified. A.I. Smirnitsky includes phraseology in lexicology. He recognizes phraseological units as “the equivalent of a word.”
The equivalence of phraseological units to a word is that “a phraseological unit has two characteristic features of a typical word: semantic integrity and existence as a ready-made unit in language, its reproducibility in speech." Further, the scientist notes that phraseological units can be attributed to the field of vocabulary, “but it is more correct to single out the system of phraseological units as a special area in lexical system language". Thus, the separate design of phraseological units is their significant difference from the whole word, which is characterized by integral design. The main feature that distinguishes phraseological units from words and phrases that arise in the process of speech is idiomaticity. However, it is necessary to take into account the fact that “phraseological units should be separated from special type idiomatic phrases that could be called idioms proper."
N.N. Amosova in her works questions the theory of the equivalence of phraseological units to a word, notes “the relativity of the equivalence of phraseological units to a word and different degrees even this relative equivalence depending on the type of phraseological units."
In this regard, it is necessary to consider the position of N.M. Shansky. The scientist characterizes the relationship between words and phraseological units as follows: “words relate to most phraseological units as reproducible linguistic units lower order to reproducible linguistic units, higher order: words consist of meaningful elementary units language, morphemes, and phraseological units - from components of a verbal nature." N.M. Shansky also notes the different grammatical forms of words and phraseological units, where the former are “unified formations, and phraseological units function in the language as separately formed formations.” According to the researcher, phraseological units have a number of specific characteristics that distinguish them from words and phrases with free meaning. Phraseological units are linguistic units that, given a certain contiguity with words and free combinations of words, have a certain set of differential features:
1) these are ready-made linguistic units that are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from the memory of speakers entirely;
2) these are linguistic units that are characterized by constancy of meaning, composition and structure;
3) in accentological terms, also sound complexes in which the constituent components have two or more main stresses;
4) these are articulated formations, the components of which are recognized by speakers as words.
Hence, phraseological units are only those units that possess the entire totality listed signs. Thus, “every significant unit, reproduced in finished form, consisting of two or more stressed components of a verbal nature, is a phraseological unit.”
Thus, based on an analysis of the points of view of different scientists, we believe that the equivalence of phraseological units to a word can be recognized in terms of their relationship to language and speech; phraseological units and words are units of language that are used in speech as units of nomination.
Literature
- Amosova N.N. Basics of English phraseology. – L.: Publishing house Leningr. Univ., 1963. 208 p.
- Zhukov V.P. Russian phraseology. – M.: graduate School, 2006. 408 p.
- Kunin A.V. On phraseological nomination // Phraseological semantics: Sat. scientific tr. – M., 1983. Issue. 211. pp. 88-100.
- Kunin A.V. Modern English course. – M.: Higher School, 1996. 381 p.
- Mokienko V.M. Mysteries of Russian phraseology. Series: Russian literature. - M., Publishing house: ABC-classics, Avalon, 2005. 256 p.
- Smirnitsky A.I. Lexicology of the English language. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1998. 260 p.
- Shansky N.M. Phraseology of the modern Russian language: Tutorial. Ed. 6th. - M.: Book house “LIBROKOM”, 2012. 272 p.
