Ethnic identity as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Problems of formation of cultural identity in modern conditions

Konchalovskaya M.M.

There are a great variety of definitions of identity in different psychological schools, however, psychologists continue to be interested in the peculiarities of the formation and origins of identity organization.
IN late XIX century, the American philosopher and psychologist W. James expressed the idea that had been established by that time about identity as the consistency and consistency of personality. William James described identity (using the word “character”) as a state when a person has the most intense and deep sense of his own activity and vitality, when the inner voice says: “This is the real me,” as some kind of “ecstatic bliss” , a “bitter” determination to do anything and overcome everything. According to W. James, this state is experienced only as a mood or emotion, not expressed in words. This is an active tension that should motivate a person to action, but without a guarantee of success.
W. James identified four forms of the Self: the material Self (body, human property), the social Self (friendship, prestige, evaluation by others), the spiritual Self (processes of consciousness, mental abilities) and the pure Self, or sense of identity (James W. , 1991). W. James noted that a person’s personality in many respects is not identical, since there are always certain differences expressed in whether a person is hungry or full, tired or rested, poor or rich, young or old, etc. But there are also more stable and significant components, for example, name, profession, attitude towards others, abilities. In addition, changes in personality occur gradually and never immediately affect its entire being, which ensures its continuity. W. James represents identity in the form of an inference based either on the similarity of essential features or on the continuity of the phenomena being compared. W. James notes that the term “personal identity” should not be understood in the sense of absolute, metaphysical unity, in which all differences are erased, since a person in his present and past is identical only insofar as there really is identity in him. The same can be said about the sign of continuity, which imparts to the individual only the unity of “continuity”, integrity, some well-defined empirical property - and nothing more. (Psychology of self-awareness, p. 31).
The term identity was introduced by the creator of psychoanalysis, S. Freud, who put forward a judgment asserting the unity of personal and cultural identities, originating in the past of the people. For the first time, a detailed description of the concept of identity was given in the works of the American psychoanalyst E. Erikson. He represented identity as a complex personal formation that has personal identity, integrity (the feeling and awareness of oneself as unchanged regardless of changes in the situation and role), continuity of one’s past, present and future, as well as recognition of a certain degree of similarity with other people while simultaneously seeing one’s uniqueness and uniqueness.
E. Erikson considered the comprehension of identity as a process that occurs in line with not only individual but also public culture, as a process that establishes a synthesis of two identities - social and personal. According to E. Erikson, “From a psychological point of view, identity formation involves a process of simultaneous reflection and observation, a process occurring at all levels of mental activity, through which the individual evaluates himself from the point of view of how others, in his opinion, evaluate him in comparison with themselves and within the typology that is meaningful to them; at the same time he evaluates their judgments of him in terms of how he perceives himself in comparison with them and with the types that are significant to him. This process takes place for the most part subconsciously - except in cases where internal conditions and external circumstances reinforce painful or ecstatic "identity consciousness" (Erikson, 1996). Social identity is defined by Erikson as a personal formation that reflects a person’s internal solidarity with group ideals and standards, as well as those of our characteristics, thanks to which we divide the world into those similar and dissimilar to ourselves.
E. Erikson argued that identity develops throughout a person’s life. This process simultaneously embraces the differentiation and integration of various interrelated elements (identifications) that form a universal structure for each person. Differentiation becomes more and more meaningful as the circle of significant persons for the individual expands.
Each crisis is critical only at one stage, however, according to Erikson, its traces are present throughout life. Thus, the success of a person’s adaptation to life at each stage of development influences how he copes with the next crisis.
J. Marcia, developing Erickson's ideas, offered another example structural analysis identity. He created his concept based on empirical research with teenagers. J. Marcia defined identity as “the structure of the ego - the internal, self-creating, dynamic organization of needs, abilities, beliefs and individual history” (Marcia, 1980). He proposed that identity manifests itself phenomenologically through observable patterns of “problem solving.” For example, in order to achieve identity, a teenager must solve problems such as going to study or work, what job to choose, whether to have sex, etc. The solution to every, even minor, life problem makes a certain contribution to achieving identity. As you make more and more diverse decisions about yourself and your life, your identity structure develops and your awareness of your strengths and weaknesses, the purposefulness and meaning of your life increases. J. Marcia emphasizes that identity development can include many other aspects, but his model is based specifically on the problem-solving aspect.
In the works of A. Waterman, the focus is on the value-volitional aspect of identity. In his opinion, identity is associated with the presence of a clear self-determination, including the choice of goals and life values ​​that a person follows throughout his life.

Interethnic, as well as any other intergroup, perception is based on the cognitive processes of categorization (into “we” and “they”), social identification and social differentiation, if we use the categorical grid of British researchers A. Tashfel and J. Turner, which has become widespread in world social psychology (Tajfel, Turner, 1986). They put forward a general psychological principle according to which differentiation (or evaluative comparison) of categorized groups is inextricably linked with another cognitive process - group identification. Or, in the apt expression of B.F. Porshnev - “every opposition unites, every unification contrasts, the measure of opposition is the measure of unification” (Porshnev, 1973. - P. 14).

A single process of differentiation/identification leads to the formation of social identity, which in the most general sense is the result of the process of comparing one’s group with other social objects. According to A. Tashfel’s definition, social identity is “that part of an individual’s self-concept that arises from the awareness of one’s membership in a social group (or groups) together with value and emotional meaning attached to this membership" (Tajfel, 1981 a, b. 255). It is in search of a positive social identity that an individual or group strives to self-determinate, separate from others, and assert their autonomy.

Ethnic identity - an integral part of a person’s social identity, a psychological category that refers to the awareness of one’s belonging to a certain ethnic community. Wherein, Firstly, it is necessary to separate the concepts of ethnic identity and ethnicity - a sociological category related to the definition of ethnicity according to a number of objective characteristics: ethnicity of parents, place of birth, language, culture - and keep in mind that in real life ethnic identity does not always coincide with the official ethnicity. Secondly, It should be remembered that ethnic identity is not reducible and may not coincide with declared identity (by ascribing oneself to an ethnic community), which is manifested in self-designation and largely depends on the social situation. In everyday life, an individual can effectively use ethnic code switching, which does not affect his true identity. As P. Weil and A. Genis note, in Soviet times, characterized by state and everyday anti-Semitism, Jews constantly had to choose - “where, when and with whom to be a Jew” (Weil, Genis, 1998. - P. 298): “In In everyday life, this meant changing the Old Testament name Abraham to Arkady, registering as Ukrainian in your passport, speaking without an accent, but remembering your nationality every time you had to take an exam for a Jewish teacher, buying scarce goods from a Jewish director, and dancing Freilachs at a Jewish wedding.” (ibid. - p. 299).

Ethnic identity is, first of all, the result of the cognitive-emotional process of realizing oneself as a representative of an ethnic group, a certain degree identifying oneself with it and separating oneself from other ethnic groups. It seems that the meaning this concept well reflects the term proposed by the Russian philosopher and ethnopsychologist G. G. Shpet (1996), who considered ethnic identity as experience its identity with one ethnic community and separation from others. Currently, increasing attention of researchers is also attracted by the idea that ethnic identity contains, in addition to the superficially conscious, a deeper unconscious layer.

Considering ethnic identity to be an integral part of social identity, modern researchers at the same time make attempts to highlight the features inherent only to it. Thus, the American ethnologist J. Devos considers ethnic identity as a form of identity embodied in cultural tradition and oriented to the past, in contrast to other forms oriented to the present or future. We can agree with G.U. Soldatova, that another feature of ethnic identity is mythological, since “its main support is the idea or myth of a common culture, origin, history” (Soldatova, 1998. - P. 48).

In the case when studying state ethnic identity, i.e. identification of an individual at a given moment and in a given social context, in its structure two main components are usually distinguished - cognitive (knowledge, ideas about the characteristics of one’s own group and awareness of oneself as a member of it based on ethnically differentiating characteristics) and affective (assessment of qualities own group, attitude towards membership in it, the significance of this membership). Some authors also highlight it behavioral component, understanding it as real mechanism not only awareness, but also manifestation of oneself as a member of a certain ethnic group, involvement in it social life, “building a system of relationships and actions in various ethno-contact situations” (Drobizheva et al., 1996. - P. 296).

In our opinion, highlighting the behavioral component of ethnic identity leads to an excessive expansion of this concept. Involvement in the social life and cultural practices of an ethnic group (use of language, religious affiliation, participation in social and political organizations, maintenance of cultural traditions) is often considered as an indicator of an individual’s ethnic identity. However, it is still questionable whether there is a connection between who individuals consider themselves to be and how they act in real life, i.e. between ethnic self-identification and ethnic involvement. The results of many empirical studies (Indian adolescents living in England, Americans of Armenian, Jewish and Chinese origin, etc.) have shown the independence of two dimensions - ideas about oneself as a member of an ethnic group and the use of behavior patterns typical for it. And in some cases, the relationship between identity and preference for certain ethnic practices has been found to be negative: a person may identify with an ethnic community but have no desire to maintain the ethnic language or customs (Phinney, 1990).

In addition, one should distinguish between attitudes toward ethnic culture, which represent unique ethnic prototypes or models worthy of imitation, and real involvement in it. Thus, during a survey of Moscow Jewish teenagers who attended a national school, their weak involvement in Jewish culture was revealed: of all the people significant to them, communication occurs with only one in Hebrew, only 11.7% of respondents attend synagogue once a month or more often, and 39.5% do not go there at all, 60.2% do not read national newspapers, 76.7% do not participate in the work of national societies. And at the same time, the respondents demonstrated an orientation toward ethnic culture; in any case, the level of orientation toward Jewish culture turned out to be more than twice as high as their actual involvement in it (Baklushinsky, Orlova, 1998).

The models proposed by different researchers use a variety of terms to designate the components of the cognitive component of ethnic identity - ethnic orientations, group concepts, etc. But the most important are recognized as Firstly,ethnic self-name, Secondly,ethnic awareness, which includes knowledge about ethnic groups - one’s own and others, their history, customs, and cultural characteristics.

Based on knowledge about one’s own and other ethnic groups, a complex of ideas is formed that form a system of ethno-differentiating characteristics. As already noted, a variety of features can act as ethno-differentiating features: language, values ​​and norms, historical memory, religion, ideas about the native land, the myth of common ancestors, national character, folk and professional art, etc. and so on.

The first form of ethnic identity that arose among hunters and gatherers of pre-ethnic communities is considered by historians of primitive society to be “consciousness of kinship by blood and marriage” (History of primitive society, 1986. - p. 466). These two types of kinship in that era did not differ, actual kinship was not separated from fictitious kinship, the custom of adoption was widespread - not only of children, but also of adults. Ideas about the unity of people in the present tense prevailed, i.e. representation about horizontal kinship. Ethnic identity was diffuse, ethnic self-designations were of little importance and could change from time to time.

With the transition to a settled and productive economy, the emergence of such a form of real estate as cultivated land, communities began to differ more and more in their lifestyle and level of socio-economic development, which led to their isolation. In the process of intergroup comparison, some tribes developed a clearer ethnic identity. The ideas of horizontal kinship have been replaced by a second form of identity - awareness of common origin. In other words, an idea is formed vertical relationship which manifests itself: a) in myths about the origin of the people in mythical times from ancestors - cultural heroes 9; b) in the cult of ancestors - the spirits of the dead in real times representatives of the tribe. Genealogies in a tribal society could consist of dozens of real generations, like the Polynesians, and go back to mythical ancestors.

The consolidation of communities and the development of connections between them lead to the emergence of ever new ethnically differentiating characteristics. For example, the division of ethnic groups into “we” - “they” can be fixed in the boundaries separating the homeland from the territory of the “barbarians”: ethnic identity is expressed through the idea territorial community, native land, homeland-centrism, like the Chinese, who, according to their ideas, lived in the middle kingdom. Currently, a close connection between ethnic identity and a sense of homeland is characteristic of the titular ethnic groups of independent states formed on the ruins of the Soviet empire. These peoples, like the titular peoples of the Russian republics, consider territory as an ethno-consolidating factor and associate the formation of state integrity with their native land.

Homeland centrism is often accompanied by ethnic endogamy - prohibition to marry representatives of a foreign people. Ethnic endogamy can be relative: among the mountain peoples of Vietnam there is no absolute prohibition on marrying girls from a neighboring community, but there are ideas about their laziness and bad character.

By the 18th century, the ethnolinguistic and cultural unity of many European communities had developed, therefore in modern times the most important ethnodifferentiating features began to be perceived native language and culture. In everyday consciousness, there is often an actual identification of language and people: for example, according to ethnosociological research in the 70-80s. of our century, over 70% of Estonians, Georgians, Uzbeks, and Moldovans defined their ethnic identity by language (Harutyunyan, Drobizheva, Susokolov, 1998).

For modern people, language is indeed one of the most important ethno-differentiating features. But in recent decades, researchers in many countries have been paying more and more attention to the indisputable fact that in some historical situations, ethnic identity is associated not so much with the actual use of language by all members of an ethnic group, but with its symbolic role in the processes of forming a sense of belonging to a community.

In a situation of ethnic mobilization, similar trends were identified by A.R. Aklaev among some Turkish-phone Greeks in Georgia, who indicated Greek as their native language and thereby demonstrated the discrepancy between language preference and real linguistic behavior (Aklaev, 1990). Even more clear results were obtained in Kazakhstan, where in the early 90s. a new period of linguistic development began - the Law on Language was adopted and conditions were created for the priority position and development of the Kazakh language as the state language. The attachment of Kazakh students to the ethnic language as a symbol of the unity of the people is clearly manifested in the fact that 98.1% of respondents consider it their native language, although 25% of respondents have a dominant Russian language, and 8% practically do not speak Kazakh. In answers to many questions, Russian-speaking Kazakhs demonstrated unrealistic use of ethnic language, and what is desired language behavior. Thus, almost half of them assured that they communicate in the family mainly in Kazakh, although this does not correspond to their linguistic competence. We can assume a high degree of preference for the ethnic language among these respondents: usually at home people speak the language they want, because the choice of the family language is regulated independently and not determined by social rules and norms.

The respondents’ answers to the question about the emotional attitude to the conversation of two Kazakhs speaking Kazakh, Russian and two languages ​​are also indicative. If bilinguals are emotionally neutral in relation to all three types of communication, then a third of Russian-speaking respondents are irritated by a conversation between two Kazakhs in Russian - the only one possible for them. Almost half of them are irritated by conversation in two languages, and communication in Kazakh; language evokes feelings of bitterness and envy. In other words, students who did not speak it turned out to be radical in their use of the ethnic language and demonstrated dissatisfied militant attitudes. And students who are fluent in two languages ​​turned out to be tolerant to the use of the Russian language - with a general preference for Kazakh - (Dontsov, Stefanenko, Utalieva, 1997).

It is worth adding that in this study respondents highly rated another symbolic sign of ethnic identity - common historical destiny. In this case, there was an undoubted connection with competence in the Kazakh language: the less the respondents spoke it, the more significant among the ethno-differentiating features they considered the common historical destiny. These results confirm the fact long noted by researchers that in modern conditions of unification of ethnic cultures, along with a steady reduction in the number of ethnically differentiating characteristics, the role of a common historical destiny as a symbol of the unity of the people is increasing. This is manifested, in particular, in the interest in historical literature. Thus, domestic ethnosociologists back in the 70s. found that the most popular literary genre Georgians and Uzbeks have a historical novel (Drobizheva, 1991). For Russians in those years, historical memory was not so acutely updated, but already in the next decade a wave of interest in their own past reached them, and the historical novels of V. Pikul - for lack of others - were read to the gills.

Ethnic identity is not only awareness of one’s identity with an ethnic community, but also its assessment, the significance of membership in it, shared ethnic feelings, i.e. its affective component. As G.U. quite rightly notes. Soldatova, “dignity, pride, grievances, fears are the most important criteria for interethnic comparison. These feelings are based on deep emotional ties with the ethnic community and moral obligations towards it, formed in the process of socialization of the individual” (Soldatova, 1998. - P. 49).

The attitude towards one's own ethnic community is manifested in ethnic attitudes. Positive attitudes include satisfaction with membership in an ethnic community, a desire to belong to it, and pride in the achievements of one’s people. In English-language literature, the term “acceptance” is often used to characterize positive attitudes. Thus, acceptance of one's group by African Americans includes statements such as: “I feel excited and happy when I am surrounded by blacks. I believe that being black gives me strength" (Phinney, 1990).

When studying the feelings experienced by representatives of the titular peoples of the republics of Russia - Tatars, Yakuts, Tuvans - in relation to their own ethnic communities, it was found that over the past ten years they all began to perceive their group as more attractive. The increase in the ethnosocial status of these peoples in the new social reality is associated with an increase in the sense of self-respect, which is manifested in an increased sense of pride and a decreased sense of shame for one’s people (Soldatova, 1998).

The presence of negative attitudes towards one’s own ethnic community includes dissatisfaction with one’s ethnicity, a feeling of humiliation or even denial of one’s own ethnic identity, a desire to hide it, and a preference for other groups as reference groups. In the same study, Soldatova found that Russians living in the republics of Russia are characterized by a decrease in the attractiveness of their ethnic group: “In recent years, they have experienced many disappointments associated with their historical fate. The overall predominance of a feeling of shame for one’s people over a feeling of pride reflects the growth among Russians of the processes of alienation from their ethnic group that are opposite to solidarity” (Soldatova, 1998. - pp. 30-31).

The loss of a positive perception of one’s ethnic community was discovered by N.M. Lebedeva (1997a), after the collapse of the USSR and among Russians living in the new foreign countries: many of them experience negative feelings associated with ethnicity - shame, resentment, infringement, humiliation (from 6.3% of respondents in Kazakhstan to 71 .4% - in Estonia).

Bibliographic description:

Nesterova I.A. Formation cultural identity personalities in the era of globalization [ Electronic resource] // Educational encyclopedia website

IN modern world Globalization processes are developing very quickly. Increasingly, there is an interpenetration of cultures, which has a strong influence for personality development.

The concept of identity in philosophy

The fundamental concept in this course work is without a doubt the category of identity. The term “identity” itself is popular in various scientific discourses, both political and theoretical – from sociology and history, to pedagogy and literary criticism. The acute relevance of this concept is justified by the moral and historical challenges that Russia now faces.

Philosophical Dictionary gives the following definition of the concept of identity:

Identity- the correlation of something with itself in the coherence and continuity of its own variability and conceivable in this capacity. “Conformity conceived in perfection is identity.

From English identification is translated as: 1. identification. 2. recognition, recognition. 3. identification (with a significant other). Translation from English of the word "identical": 1. identical; 2. the same (about the same subject). Translation from German: die Identitat also means identity.

Throughout the entire process of understanding the concept of “identity” in philosophical discourse, there is a relationship with the so-called “problem of identity”, which is considered as the main characteristic of being.

The evolution of the concept of "identity"

Within the framework of classical philosophy, the development of the problem of identity was carried out by such ancient philosophers like Parmenides, Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, Neoplatonists. This problem was not ignored in medieval philosophy either. So Augustine the Blessed, Thomas Aquinas, and Nicholas of Cusa studied it. In addition, the problem of identity was not ignored by representatives of classical German philosophy such as I. Kant, I.G. Fichte, F.W.J. Schelling, G.W.F. Hegel. In non-classical philosophy, the problem of identity is associated with human life and existence. In the post-non-classical tradition, the problem of identity is denied. Thus, in the works of T. Adorno, J. Deleuze, J. Derrida, “otherness,” “difference,” and “multiplicity” are put in its place.

In philosophical discourse, “identity” is considered taking into account different approaches and interpretations. Precisely based on the fact that the phenomenon of individual identity is associated with by various parties life of an individual, a conceptual apparatus is formed. At the somatic level, identity is based on the continuous existence of a spatial structure over time. Based on this, we emphasize that identity means that the physical shell, i.e. “body” is an important, but not an absolute condition for identifying a particular person.

If we turn to the mental side of the concept of “identity,” then, as a “sense of coherent individuation,” identity is the feeling that a person is himself, possessing memory, reflective consciousness and the ability of awareness, and the way other people see him. On social level identity is determined by certain sociocultural conditions.

The philosophical category of the concept of identity is characterized by universality. In other words, identity is not tied to the narrow subject boundaries of cognition and is not limited to the space of cognitive relations, but is woven into the world of cultural meanings and social practices.

So A.A. Legchilin writes that “the phenomenon of identity is in fact so mobile and historical that it often claims to be a certain marker in relation to one or another socio-cultural phenomenon.”

It is believed that S. Freud first began to use the term “identity” in his works; in his works one can find the use of this term in several different senses.

Since the second half of the twentieth century, the problem of understanding the term “identity” has gone beyond philosophical and scientific disciplinarities. Thus, the American psychologist Erik Homburger Erikson proposed an interdisciplinary approach, thanks to which it became possible to formulate an approach to the problem of identity in relation to individuals, groups, culture and society as a whole, using sociological, psychological, and philosophical research in interaction.

In Russian philosophical thought, the study of the problem of identity has left its wide mark. And this despite the fact that for domestic researchers issues related to the issue of identity are relatively new. The reason for this fact is that in Russian philosophy the terms “self-determination” and “self-awareness” were used to denote the phenomenon of “identity”.

Domestic scientist V.A. Yadov differentiates different points of view on identity as an understanding of identity as a certain state and as the identification of identity as a process that leads to a given state. V.A. Yadov positions social identification as a designation of “group identifications of individuals, that is, self-determination of individuals in a social group space of relatively diverse communities as “us” and “not their own.”

In modern society, the problem of individual identity is acute. This need is justified by the fact that every person needs a certain orderliness in his life, which he can only obtain in the community of other people. It is for this purpose that a person is obliged to accept the prevailing elements of consciousness in a given community, tastes, habits, norms, values ​​and other means of communication adopted by the people around him. Having adapted to the specific cultural and social conditions of life of a certain group, a person gives his life an orderly character, and also becomes part of a certain culture. From here we can formulate such a concept as “cultural identity”. The essence of the concept of “cultural identity” according to T.G. Grushevitskaya “lies in understanding one’s self from the standpoint of those cultural characteristics that are accepted in a given society, in self-identifying oneself with the cultural patterns of this particular society.”

Cultural identity determines the actions and judgments of an individual embedded in a system of diverse collective connections. His picture of the world is formed on the basis of the concept of “I”, ideas about “Own”, “Other” and “Alien”, from values, ideas, hierarchies, norms and prohibitions, reflected in various symbolic systems (languages). The listed categories are equally discussed in the context of sociology, psychology, political science, philosophy, linguistics, art history, as well as cultural studies, which integrates the traditional nomenclature of humanitarian knowledge.

According to I.A. Akimova, “cultural identity, as a rule, is understood as a person’s conscious acceptance cultural norms, rules, standards of behavior and thinking, traditions, values ​​and language of the cultural community with which a person identifies himself. Identifying oneself with certain cultural groups gives the individual the opportunity to make his life more understandable, orderly and predictable."

According to M.E. Popov, the basis of the concept of “cultural identity” is contained in the realization that “members of a nation must share common values ​​developed during a common historical past. This leads to the concept of identification: a person identifies himself with a large group of people and perceives his individual destiny in inextricable unity with his destiny."

It is important to emphasize the democratic potential that is initially inherent in this definition: one can become a member of a nation regardless of race or religion, but as a result of free expression of will.

Cultural identity in the modern world

The formation of cultural identity is currently greatly influenced by modern information and communication technologies, which are one of the important factors of globalization in the cultural sphere.

In our opinion, the clearest definition of cultural identity is given in his study by M.M. Predovskaya. In her opinion, “Cultural identity is one of in meaningful ways self-identification of the individual, arising from formal or informal membership in groups that create and transmit knowledge, beliefs, values, norms of behavior and ways of everyday life."

In modern science, cultural identity is seen as the establishment of spiritual bonds between society and a person, a sense of belonging to a certain culture, the acceptance of its values, even the organization of one’s life on the basis of ideas held by a culture, which allows one to determine one’s place in the sociocultural space and freely navigate in the surrounding world.

The concept of “cultural identity” has a non-hierarchical structure; it is changeable: in each specific case, cultural identity appears as fragmentary.

As a multifaceted phenomenon, cultural identity continues to be an important philosophical issue that is pondered by scholars around the world. Awareness of the main features of cultural identity will help the development of philosophy in a new progressive direction.

Globalization as a phenomenon in modern reality

In the modern world, many processes are taking place aimed at developing the process of globalization. Philosophy as a large-scale science cannot but concentrate its attention on the processes and problems within the framework of globalization.

The process of globalization began in the 12th–13th centuries. in the era of development of market relations in Western Europe. It was the first steps towards a capitalist society that pushed the development of trade between countries and, accordingly, the interpenetration of cultures. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, the process of globalization developed progressively, but slowly. In the first decades of the 20th century, even the First World War could not prevent the processes of globalization. World War, and after the Second World War, the development of globalization began to gain momentum every decade.

The world historical turn in 1989 became a significant stage in the evolution of globalization. The main reason for this is the fact that until 1989 the very existence of two world regimes kept the process of globalization confined to specific practical boundaries. Each carefully selected element of globalization could break out of the system of these regimes only through exceptional efforts.

Already in 1995, 75 GATT participants formed the World Trade Organization (WTO), and then the European Union was formed, which continues to expand by including more and more states.

Currently, a clear indicator of globalization can be called the fact cited by P.N. Khmylev. He writes that “the most important global structure belonging to Western countries is the international telecommunications system, which combines satellites, intercontinental cables and computers. It connects all countries and allows information to be transmitted almost instantly in various forms to anywhere on the planet. The entire international telecommunications network is controlled by two -three largest Western companies."

One of the most important and at the same time most complex problems of the socio-philosophical study of globalization is the continuous interaction of its functional and non-functional elements and aspects, which are like cogs in a machine. The more global processes realize their global character, the more obviously they manifest clearly functional characteristics in their activities.

IN modern philosophy There are many approaches and interpretations of globalization as irreversible and most important phenomenon in the history of mankind.

Despite the great attention to globalization, there is no single perception in philosophy this phenomenon. There are several opposing views on this phenomenon in modern philosophy. Thus, for some scientists, globalization is a phenomenon aimed at increasing opportunities for the affirmation of the authentic, or individual, existence of all subjects of the historical process, such as individuals, social groups, peoples, countries and entire regions. Other scientists and philosophers perceive globalization as a deeply negative phenomenon that can destroy the culture and identity of individual countries. In addition, for them, globalization is a process that provokes the so-called “loss of roots” and causes typification and stereotyped cultural development of modern states.

Globality is global because it does not resist, but captures and embraces. If there is a confrontation in it, then it is historical (in relation to previous development), i.e. temporal, not spatial. But there is undoubtedly a problem here. It is how to understand this capture or embrace. To some, globalization seems to be an isotropic information technology process, uniformly enveloping the entire globe, without breaks or local “crystallizations.”

Speaking about the understanding of the term “globalization” in science, we note that, according to A.A. Belik, the term “globalization” has a “vague” and “undefined” content. It is very important, and its frequent mention and use “indicate a new stage of integrative processes occurring between countries, regions, and types of cultures.”

We cannot ignore the interpretation of the concept of globalization that I.V. offers us. Novikova. She formulates a very capacious and understandable definition of globalization, which most widely reveals all facets of this phenomenon. So, in her opinion: “Globalization is a process of worldwide economic, political and cultural integration and unification. Globalization is a process of drawing in the world economy, most recently understood as a set national economies connected with each other by a system of international division of labor, economic and political relations, into the world market and the close intertwining of their economies on the basis of transnationalization and regionalization."

The approach to globalization within the framework of the philosophy of Jacques Derrida is very interesting and capacious. The task of the philosopher, in his opinion, is to comprehend and explain the complex process globalization we are dealing with and defining it modern capabilities and consequences in the future. Public task a philosopher is serious analysis and open discussion of specific problems. In his article “Globalization. World. Cosmopolitanism,” the philosopher recalls Hegel’s call to philosophers: “Hegel was right in reminding the philosophers of his time of the need to read newspapers every day. Today, the same responsibility lies with us and forces us to recognize how newspapers are made, and who makes them, daily, weekly and television news. We need to look at them from a different perspective: from the news agency side, as well as from the editor's side." In general, globalization carries both positive and negative elements. So, according to a number of scientists, including L.A. Korobeinikov, they believe that globalization is a step to a new stage in the development of civilization. In addition, globalization can be called a regulator of the balance of socio-economic and cultural formation of civilization. However, the negative side of globalization can be considered the rapid manifestation of the material principle, which leads to the destruction of human society.

Cultural identity of the individual in the context of globalization in the modern world

Culture and personality are closely interconnected not only within the framework of “being” as such, but also within the framework of the latest philosophical concepts that take place in modern science. Many researchers pay attention to the interaction of these concepts in modern philosophy. E.A. Orlova in her book “Cultural Anthropology” writes that “Today the direction of “culture and personality” is concentrated on comparative cultural studies of such topics as:

1. the relationship between social-structural, as well as value-based, stable elements of culture and stereotypical, modal patterns of socialization, especially primary (childhood experience);
2. the relationship between cultural stereotypes of socialization and the characteristics of the modal, basic structure of personality, manifested in behavior and social interaction;
3. connection between basic personality traits and social realization necessary functions, with the content of sociocultural roles, with projective aspects of culture;
4. the relationship between basic personality traits and cultural patterns with behavioral deviations from socially acceptable norms (in any interpretation) and mental disorders.”

The theory of personal identity begins to be widely developed in various fields of human science in the 70s of the twentieth century in connection with the aggravation of the problem of personal choice and measures of personal responsibility in all spheres of life space.

ON THE. Evgenieva very clearly defines the concept of cultural identity of a person. She writes that: "An individual's cultural identity is defined in our study as awareness and emotional acceptance a person of his personal integrity and certainty on the basis of self-identification with the norms, values ​​and patterns of his native culture, manifested in the implemented culturally specific models of behavior."

Based on this statement, we note that the concept of “personal cultural identity” cannot exist separately from the culture of society as a whole and the culture of a particular society. However, currently there is an obvious tendency towards the merging and interpenetration of cultures, which is an element of globalization.

Development of globalization

The most significant consequence of the globalization of culture is the restructuring of identities. A. Appadurai considers globalization as “deterritorialization - the loss of the connection of social processes to physical space,” in which a “global cultural flow” is formed, breaking up into five cultural-symbolic space-flows. The scientist names among these “space-flows”:

• ethnospace, which is formed by the flow of tourists, immigrants, refugees, migrant workers;
• technospace formed by various technologies;
• financial space, which represents the flow of capital; media space being a flow of images;
• ideospace is a flow of ideologemes.

Let us consider the problem of the influence of globalization on cultural identity using the specific example of Belgium. A critical political situation has developed in Belgium, which could lead to the split of this country into two new ones - Flanders and Wallonia. The Belgian ethnic conflict is a Walls-Flemish confrontation that arose on the basis of language factor back in the middle of the 19th century.

So, giving a brief description of this conflict, firstly, it is necessary to note the coexistence on the territory of the Belgian state of two large ethnic groups: the Dutch-speaking Flemings and the French-speaking Walloons. The Walloons are an ethnic group with a total population of 4 million 100 thousand people. The Flemings are a people of the Germanic linguistic group, descendants of the Franks, Saxons and Frisians. The total number is 7 million 230 thousand.

Language conflict in Belgium

Division of Belgium into geographical areas and linguistic communities is explained by the fact that the boundaries of geographical and cultural divisions may not coincide. The metropolitan area (Brussels), located in the geographical part of Flanders, is officially considered bilingual (French and Dutch), but as a result of a long-term language policy of “Frenchization”, it has actually become a French-speaking enclave with more than 80% of the population speaking French. The German language community is part of the Walloon geographical area.

The problem of the Flemish-Walloon conflict has been studied by many European scientists. In addition, there are a number of large-scale studies focusing exclusively on Wallonia, but which are more descriptive than research character. For example, the work of F. Desstatt “Walloon Identity”, which is an important synthesis of empirical material. The work contains some assessments of the institutional development of the region, a description of cause-and-effect relationships regional processes Wallonia.

Features of the Belgian conflict

This conflict involves an attempt to suppress Wallona's cultural identity. If we consider the situation from this perspective, it becomes obvious that in Belgium there is a complex and multifaceted identity crisis, a characteristic feature of which is the aggravation of problems of national-cultural identity and national self-awareness.

In addition, it should be noted that in modern conditions of expanding globalization, problems that are relevant to Belgium are gradually losing their importance within the world community.

Problems of formation of cultural identity in modern conditions

In conditions active growth globalization, in the context of the penetration of globalization processes into all spheres of human life, cultural identity plays the role of a marker that allows an individual to self-determinate within not only a particular society, but also the world as a whole. However, the smoothing of differences between nations and cultures, the interpenetration of knowledge and traditions creates a barrier to the cultural identity of an individual. Globalization works to depersonalize nations and create a single society without identifying characteristics. This is exactly what it is important issue in modern society.

Of course, we must not forget that, starting from the 18th century, cultural identity was the most successful tool for unifying the nation at that time. At the same time, N.N. Ponarina emphasizes that “the dynamics and complexity of globalization are such that this form of identity cannot be sustainable indefinitely.”

The process of globalization threatens the ability of nation states to maintain the exclusivity of their identity, as well as the ability to independently manage their economies in the global marketplace. For example, the complexities and tensions of multi-ethnic societies and global popular movements—a constant feature of all modern nation-states—create challenges in giving twenty-first-century nations a coherent and understandable identity.

Forecast for the development of cultural identity in the context of globalization

Currently, the problem of cultural identity is relevant not only for “peripheral” countries that are vulnerable in the context of globalization, but also for the leading powers of the world.

Based on a number of trends noted in the course work, we can draw an objective conclusion that further smoothing of cultural boundaries and the interpenetration of traditions will take place against the backdrop of globalization trends characteristic of modern society. However, the rapid unification of countries into large organizations such as the European Union has already provoked growing discontent among small nations, which may finally lose their cultural identity against the backdrop of European unification. In the future, this will either lead to the split of Europe into small states (for example, Catalonia), or globalization processes will cause a complete loss of cultural identity and the creation of a new cultural pan-European tradition. Russia will not be able to join the world community by adapting to global traditions, because The original side of national culture is too strong. The same can be predicted for Asian countries. Their original culture does not allow the penetration of foreign traditions and it is thanks to this that countries such as, for example, Japan manage to preserve their national idea, primarily in the field of culture, in the dominant system of value orientations. However, in the context of globalization, the interpenetration of traditions within Asia has become possible.

Based on the identified foundations of a person’s cultural identity in the context of globalization, there is a growing likelihood that the more depersonalization and technological progress develop, the stronger the individual’s desire to return to fundamental origins and cultural traditions will increase.

In general, cultural identity in the modern world is a problem associated with the existence of a diversity of ethnic cultures, integration processes in the conditions of the emergence of a single world market, free movement of goods, capital and dissemination of information. The process of globalization is complex and requires a very competent approach to the interpenetration of cultures. It is necessary to take into account the mentality of each nation. Already now this requires tolerance, mutual understanding of people brought up in the conditions of different national cultures of the western and eastern, northern and southern parts of Eurasia, Christianity, Islam and other religious faiths. Ignoring such features is fraught with increased tension in the world and the development of new conflicts. In addition, ignoring the interests of small nations in the sphere of economics and politics, cultural interests, ideological, value preferences and priorities in the future can lead to a weakening of the potential of the entire world economy.

Any person in modern conditions is forced to relate himself to the spaces of the globalized world, to a change in the picture of the world according to its basic parameters. The images of social identity of modern man are changing accordingly.

Cultural identity occupies an important place in the study of globalization. Personal cultural identity continues to be an important philosophical problem that scientists around the world are pondering. Awareness of the main features of cultural identity will help the development of philosophy in a new progressive direction.

As an example, we considered the Flemish-Walloon conflict, which has already played a huge role in the development of Belgium as a multicultural country. This conflict, in addition to its negative aspects, also has a positive role, namely: in the context of globalization, there is no obvious smoothing out of traditions and there remains room for the formation of the cultural identity of an individual. However, based on the fact that globalization processes are rapid and, for the most part, irreversible this conflict is gradually losing its relevance within the framework of the development of the world community.

The transformation processes currently operating in the world are disrupting traditional forms identities are questioned subjective feeling self-identity formed within the framework of the previous tradition.

Literature

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(determination of the sign and magnitude of the general emotional orientation of the stereotype). 1

Thus, interactive aspect arises in the system of intergroup interaction of various ethnocultural groups. It is in a situation where group members realize their difference from each other that their cultural specification acts as a marker. Therefore, ethnicity is derived from intergroup interaction, has a symbolic nature and is often provoked by the political context. At the individual level, it acts as a special "I"- concept (subjective assignment to a reference ethnic group), which at the group level turns into the image of “We”. At the same time, ethnicity is also a cultural and symbolic environment in which the socialization of an individual occurs. 2

Strengthening in the 60-70s. The disintegration of American society on the basis of ethnicity caused ethnology to pose the problem of the nature of ethnic solidarity and interethnic interaction. Her analysis had a deep political context and met the task of preserving national (civil, political) unity and harmony in the country. The formulation of this problem led to methodological innovations. From the point of view of specialists studying American ethnology, until the 60s. the leading position in it was occupied by the direction headed by T. Parsons social integration, focused on the study of integration processes and “equilibrium” of social systems. Analysis of disintegration

^oldatova G.U. Psychology of interethnic tension. M.: Smysl, 1998.P.70-71. Sikevich Z.V. Sociology and psychology of national relations. St. Petersburg, 1999.S. 18-20.

processes made popular the “theory of conflict of forces” when combining it with the principles of system-functional analysis. 1

This direction was clearly manifested in the works of P.L. Van den Berghe. Using Weber's ideal type construct, he examines interethnic relations in terms of two ideal types patriarchal And competitive. The patriarchal type of interethnic relations arises in the system of domination of a more developed (industrially and culturally) ethnic group in relation to a less developed (“immature”, “primitive”) one. The dominant group justifies its dominant position based on the ideology of “enlightened despotism.” A paternalistic system of relations can, over time, lead to the development of an inferiority complex and ethnic nihilism in the subordinate group.

The competitive type of interethnic relations develops in modern urbanized societies, which are characterized by selection not according to ethnic (racial) or clan ties, but according to professional qualities. The distance between social groups decreases, and therefore the dominant group relies on ethnic differences to maintain its status. A paternalistic system is characterized by a guardianship type of attitude towards a subordinate ethnic group; in a competitive system, it is seen as an “aggressor,” “a rival who forgot about the help provided,” “ungrateful,” etc. As a reaction to this position in a competitive system, the subordinate group experiences an exacerbation of ethnic

Tabolina T.V. Ethnic issues in modern American science. M, 1985. P.73.

self-awareness, its political activity is increasing (rallies, protest marches, etc.). 1

P.L. Van den Berghe links the nature of interethnic relations with more fundamental changes in the economy, social and political spheres. At the same time, to track the dynamics of relations, he is forced to move away from a strictly functionalist methodology and use the theory of conflict, referring to the works of R. Dahrendorf and L. Coser. 2 His conclusions were based on the study of wide empirical material and its interpretation primarily within the framework of relations between the dominant and subordinate ethnic groups. This approach had a great influence on the creation of subsequent models of interethnic relations.

Another famous American ethnologist R. Schermerhord also relies on the position of conflict theory. His concept of interethnic relations is built on the dichotomy of centrifugal and centripetal tendencies. The centripetal tendency ensures the integration of an ethnic group into all spheres of life of the dominant group in a given society. Moreover, each ethnic group is in a state of struggle for existence, status, and prestige. A centripetal tendency (acceptance of common values, norms, participation in state institutions, etc.) can be interpreted by a national minority as a desire to merge with the main ethnic community or as achieving the status of a dominant group. The centrifugal tendency manifests itself in the desire to separate from the general whole, which can be expressed in

1 Denisova G.S., Radovel M.R. Ethnosociology. Rostov-on-Don: Publishing house LLC "CVVR", 2000. P.52,36.

2 Van den Berghe P.L. Race and Racism: A Comparative Perspective. N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, 1978.

conservation of language, religion, way of life, regulatory norms, etc. This requires certain institutional forms, for example, endogamy, ethnoprofessional stratification, etc. 1

Ethnic relations, as a rule, are projected into the sphere of ethnic self-awareness (without which group solidarity is impossible) and can be diagnosed by its change. Therefore, along with the search for a methodology for analyzing interethnic relations, American sociology of the 60-80s gg. paid great attention to the study of ethnic processesidentification. An important means studying ethnic attitudes(attitudes) was psychological testing, building various scales of social and personal distance (conservatism-authoritarianism, status bias; for example, authoritarianism is used to explain ethnic bias). It was found that the formation of ethnic attitudes is greatly influenced by non-ethnic factors, for example, status. In social groups of a given ethnic group with different status, various ethnic stereotypes can be formed. An analysis of ethnic identification has led a number of researchers to the conclusion that it is not a natural factor, but a social construct, in the creation of which rituals, ceremonies with symbolic meaning, and ideology play a large role. The development of problems of ethnic identification in social anthropology also led to the formation of a constructivist concept of understanding ethnic

1 Seton-Watson H. Nation and States. An Inquiry into the Origins of Nations and Politics of Nationalism. - Boulder, Col., 1977; Denisova G.S., Radovel M.R. Ethnosociology. Rostov-on-Don: Publishing house LLC "CVVR", 2000. P.35.

factor a. 1

A prominent representative of this approach is Professor B. Anderson of Cornell University (USA), who interprets ethnicity as an “imaginary community” that is constructed to achieve certain goals. political interests. He believes that the discovery of printing and the spread of literacy had the consequence of leveling linguistic and cultural differences. The printed word became a tool with which it became possible to organize and mobilize the masses. It was with the development of printing that mass national movements emerged. One of its organizers is the state itself: it offers symbols (coat of arms, anthem), forms national consciousness, etc. Anderson argues that without conscious and intensive propaganda work in this area, ethnic communities would not have formed as active political units. At the same time, the organizer of national-ideological work (state or party, leader) in accordance with national idea usually manipulates historical facts, selecting from the past only those that work for this idea.

Analyzing existing theoretical concepts, interpreting today's “explosion of ethnicity,” University of Chicago professor J. Komaroff built a certain typology of them within the framework of a constructivist approach. The approach itself is distinguished by the principle that “political and cultural

1 Denisova G.S., Radovey M.R. Ethnosociology. Rostov-on-Don: Publishing House LLC
"CVVR", 2000. pp. 35-36.

2 Anderson W. Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism.

L.-N.Y., 1992. P.39-71,131-146.

self-awareness is the result of human activity.” Within it, the following concepts stand out: “the point of view of realism, which... argues that the emergence and preservation of the phenomenon of national identity are based on “objective” interests, and which bases its method on game theory, but does not even try to explain why collective identity should seek its justification primarily in cultural kinship; cultural constructivism, which believes that the formation of groups, as well as the semantic essence of their self-awareness, is a function of their common symbolism and signative practice, but at the same time reveals a tendency to view “culture” as a closed system and therefore lose sight of the complex configuration of systems of power and prestige and representation, characteristic of most regions of the world with their internal mosaic of cultures; political constructivism, which focuses on how elites shape ideologies, symbols, and social knowledge and then try to impose them as the dominant culture of the nation-state, thereby eliminating the differences that exist in a given political society; and radical historicism with its Marxist bias, which explains the emergence of social forms of self-awareness through the action of long-term processes during which collective consciousness arises as a product of the division of labor and the transformation of material inequalities into cultural differences.” 1

The main change that has emerged in the approach of the constructivists is the understanding of the ethnic not so much as initially given, static, but as a derivative of the dynamics of social

1 Komaroff J. Nationality, ethnicity, modernity: the politics of identity at the end of the 20th century // Ethnicity and power in multi-ethnic states: Materials international conference 1993 M., 1994. P.41.

relationships. The core of the “ethnic” content moves to the sphere of the ethnic group’s awareness of its differences. Here, constructivism also uses the developments of modernist anthropology, in particular its study of ethnicity as a situational community that arises in the process of intergroup interaction. 1

Thus, one of the main issues in various paradigms is the solution to the question of the essence of the ethnic-forming factor. Those. what comes first: ethnic “matter” (a naturally historically formed collective) or ethnic consciousness, which can be constructed and introduced. In traditional Soviet science, this issue was resolved in favor of “matter”: “Ethnic groups exist independently of our consciousness and represent part of objective social reality. An ethnos can neither be formed nor disbanded arbitrarily, at will (by the call of a hero, by order of the government or a resolution of parliament, etc.). The basis of an ethnos is people, living and completely material, constituting the most important part of the material productive forces, people entering into objective relations of production" 2

Denisova G.S., Radovel M.R. Ethnosociology. Rostov-on-Don: Publishing house LLC "CVVR", 2000. P.37. 2 Platonov Yu.V., Pochebut L.G. Ethnic social psychology. St. Petersburg, 1993. P.22.

§ 2. Ethnic identity as a type of social identity

The concept of ethnic identity in scientific research is one of the most complex and controversial topics, due to the variety of theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of this issue. Various disciplines study ethnic identity: ethnology, sociology, psychology, political science, social philosophy.

Disclosure of the essence of ethnic identity must begin with a consideration of the concept of “identity.” The study of identity and the emergence of this concept begins* with the work of S. Freud “ Group psychology and analysis of the Ego”, written in 1914, where for the first time the concept identification was used in a psychological context. Z. Freud considers identification not only as an unconscious emotional connection between a child and his parents, but also as an important mechanism of interaction between an individual and a social group. Freud also outlined the potential of this concept, as a common identification shared by group members, to explore the nature of the group and its cohesion. 1

Social psychological research and work on personal identity within the framework of role theories of personality were considered by J. Mead, R. Linton. Identification by J. Mead is considered as a result social interaction. As an identification tool, he introduces the concept of the “generalized other,” which means a set of impersonal attitudes, norms and values

Drobizheva L.M., Aklaev A.R., Koroteeva V.V., Soldatova G.U. Democratization and images of nationalism in the Russian Federation of the 90s. M.: Mysl, 1996. P.297; Soldatova G.U. Psychology of interethnic tension. M.: Smysl, 1998. P.44.

society. In the process of communicating with other people, the individual begins to look at himself from the outside, i.e. How on social object. According to J. Mead, a person acquires consciousness and his own I only in group action, as if trying on the roles of “generalized others.” Also, a significant contribution to the development of the concept of identity was made by research in psychological anthropology in the process of studying conscious and unconscious manifestations of ethnicity. 1 However, it was E. Erikson who formulated the concept of identity and brought it to a central place in modern social theory. The conceptualization of identity was formulated by E. Erikson during his psychotherapeutic work with American soldiers who participated in World War II. The problem of identity, according to E. Erikson, became “strategic for America in the 50-60s.” with its sharp racial and social divisions, the influx of immigrants and the problems of Native Americans." 2 E. Erikson highlighted the concept of psychosocial identity as a product of interaction between society and the individual. Psychosocial identity is characteristic only for mature personality, in which internal identity and continuity are synthesized with the desire for its integration with social structures (state, nation, various social groups). 3 As a mediating tool

1 Velik A.A. Psychological anthropology: history and theory. M., 1993. P.143-169;
Soldatova G.U. Psychology of interethnic tension. M.: Smysl, 1998. P.44.

2 Erikson E. Memorandum on Identity and Negro Youth/ A Way of Looking at things.
Selected papers/Edited by Stephen Schlein. New York, 1995. P. 647; Drobizheva L.M.,
Aklaev A.R., Koroteeva V.V., Soldatova G.U. Democratization and images of nationalism
in the Russian Federation in the 90s. M.: Mysl, 1996. P.297; Soldatova G.U.
Psychology of interethnic tension. M.: Smysl, 1998. P.45.

3 Erikson E. Psychosocial Identity/A Way of Looking at things. Selected papers/Edited by
Stephen Schlein. New York, 1995. P.675; Drobizheva L.M., Aklaev A.R., Koroteeva V.V.,
Soldatova G.U. Democratization and images of nationalism in the Russian Federation of the 90s

identification, instead of the “generalized other” of J. Mead, E. Erikson uses “ideology” - a systematized set of ideas and ideals. Exploring the dynamic adaptive function of identity, E. Erikson introduced the concept of personal identity crises and emphasized them unbreakable connection with crises of social development. In the structure of psychosocial identity, he identifies positive and negative elements characteristic of both the individual and his historical era. Depending on the strength of the crisis, a situation is possible when negative elements come to the fore beyond the boundaries of positive ethnic identity. E. Erikson considered individual crises of identity and crises of society as a special turning point in the development of personality, when elements of a new identity are created. 1 Psychoanalytic scholars have especially emphasized the motivational function of identity. E. Erikson, considering psychosocial identity as a necessary condition for maintaining the health of an individual, his internal integrity and stability, defined it as an important personal need. E. Fromm also included the need for identity among the universal human needs. According to E. Fromm, the need for identity is behind people’s aspirations to gain social status and behind conformism, as one of the four he described psychological mechanisms"escape from freedom" 2. As one of the leading human needs, according to E. Fromm, is “the need for connection with the outside world, the need to avoid

years. M.: Mysl, 1996. P.298; Soldatova G.U. Psychology of interethnic tension. M.: Smysl, 1998. P.45.

Erikson E. Identity: youth and crisis / Translation, from English. General ed. and preface

Tolstykh A.V.M.: “Progress”. 1996.

2 Fromm E. The human situation. M: Meaning. 1995. P.64.

loneliness”, which is achieved by self-identification with any ideas, values, social standards, i.e. through the formation of social identity 1.

Potential multiplicity social choice and expansion of the paths of self-realization, which became possible for the first time since the beginning capitalist relations, according to E. Fromm, are faced with a person’s unpreparedness to accept such free loneliness and, as a result, cause a search for such connections with the world that destroy his individuality - “the individual ceases to be himself: he completely assimilates the type of personality offered to him by the generally accepted template, and becomes exactly the same as everyone else. The difference between one's own disappears I and the world around us, and at the same time a conscious fear of loneliness and powerlessness.” 2 This fact the collision of two opposing trends in social development - the trend of stereotyping lifestyles and universalization public relations with the tendency to comprehensively include a person in social practice - has become a subject of scientific reflection for social psychology, as noted by many researchers.

In the early 70s of the XX century. the creator of structural anthropology, C. Lévi-Strauss, argued that the identity crisis would become the new misfortune of the century and predicted a change in the status of the problem put forward: socio-philosophical and psychological consideration would expand to an interdisciplinary approach.

It was E. Erikson who finally gave identity the status of an independent scientific paradigm and all further research

Fromm E. Decree. Op. P.66. 2 Fromm E. Decree. Op. P. 159.

This issue was somehow related to his concept. E. Erikson understood identity as the process of organizing life experience into an individual I, which suggested its dynamics throughout a person’s life 1 . E. Erikson defines identity as a complex personal formation that has a multi-level structure, which consists of three interconnected levels of analysis of human nature: individual, personal and social.

At the individual level of analysis, identity is defined by him as the result of a person’s awareness of his own spatio-temporal extension. This is the idea of ​​oneself as some relative unchangeable given of one or another physical appearance, temperament, inclinations, having a past that belongs to it and looking to the future.

From a personal point of view, identity is defined by E. Erikson as a person’s feeling of his own originality, uniqueness, his life experience, which defines some identity to himself. This item identity - “a person’s conscious experience of his own ability to integrate all identifications with libido drives, with mental abilities acquired in activity and with favorable opportunities offered by social roles” 2.

E. Erikson defines the third level of identity as a personal construct that reflects a person’s internal solidarity with social, group ideals and standards and thereby helps the process of self-categorization - “these are our characteristics that

"Erikson E. Identity: youth and crisis / Translation, from English. General ed. and preface. Tolstykh A.V.M.: “Progress”. 1996. 2 Erikson E. Op. cit. S.ZO.

thanks to which we divide the world into those similar and dissimilar to ourselves.” He called the latter structure social identity. 1

Within the framework of the cognitivist direction, an analysis of identity is carried out as the most important mental structure of both the individual and the group. The bottom line is that impressions of the world are organized into coherent interpretations - ideas, attitudes, stereotypes, expectations, which act as regulators social behavior. One of the most famous works, implemented on this basis, is the concept of social identity of G. Tejfel. Here, identity was not only transferred to the intergroup level, but special attention was paid to the internal cognitive structure of this mental formation. According to this concept, the quality and meaning of identity are determined through the logical operations of comparing the in-group with out-groups along a number of significant parameters. In situations where group difference becomes particularly salient, the individual begins to respond from the position of his group membership, rather than from the position of an individual. G. Tejfel emphasizes the emotional significance of group membership. He concludes that an individual, considering himself as a member of a social group, strives to evaluate it positively, thus raising its status. The desire for a positive identity determines a more positive assessment of one’s own group compared to others. 3

... research theoretically-methodological Aspects identical ... Chapter second: THEORETICALLY-METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS... by ethnic sign...

Concept of identity

Identity theories

National identity

State identity

Concept of identity

Recently, the term “identity” has become increasingly common in many works in the field of international tourism and international relations. Leading identity analyst Erik Erikson called it “pervasive,” “foggy,” “incomprehensible.” Jewish writer Leon Wilsiter published a book, Against Identity, in 1996, in which he ridiculed this concept. However, in 1998, in his book Kadesh, a frank admission of his own Jewish identity, he wrote: “Identity is like sin: no matter how much we resist it, we cannot escape it.” However, upon closer examination, it turns out that often, when using this concept, authors simply pay tribute to fashion and do not always clearly imagine the conceptual field, etymology and theoretical foundations of identity. In stable international relations, the question of identity does not arise, since each actor knows and feels that he belongs. However, in troubled times change and upheaval, when the past is unbearable and the future is uncertain, the question of identity comes to the fore. It sets the direction for development, allows one to clearly define national interests, and distinguish friends from enemies. A maritime proverb says: “A ship that does not know where to sail will never have a fair wind.” This chapter makes an attempt to systematically analyze domestic and foreign sources on the problem of identity, define this concept, consider the etymology of the term, generalize and systematize theories available in sociology and psychology, and reveal the influence on international tourism national and state identities.

The concept of “identity” is used in psychology, sociology, political science and other sciences in relation to a person, citizen, nation-state, etc. We feel identity in moments of deep personal contact, touching matters of deep and enduring importance to us. C. Huntington defines identity as the self-awareness of an individual or group. Psychologists define identity as the awareness of the belonging of an object (subject) to another object (subject) as a part and a whole, special and universal. The term "identity" comes from the Latin concept identifico- I identify. IN different languages the understanding of this term differs. For English identity This language is characterized by a wide range of meanings. Most frequently used identification– identification, recognition, identification; identical– identical, the same (about the same subject); personal identity– personal identity; I-identity– identity of the Self; sense of identity– sense of self-identity; self-feeling– feeling of self; I-feeling– sense of self. German terms have the greatest specificity and certainty Die Identity– identity and Ich-identitat- identity of the Self. In Germany, already in the 1970-1980s, a large number of literature on identity theory. The Germans understand identity as “historical individuality,” emphasizing the historical nature of identity. Appeal to French identite again confronts us with an expanded interpretation of the term, while the set of meanings is somewhat different from the semantic content of English identity. In scientific literature, the term “identity” intersects with such concepts as self-awareness, conformity, originality, integrity, unity, sameness, selfhood, authenticity. Antonyms for the concept of “identity”: instability, inconsistency, uncertainty, break in continuity. The concept of “identity” contains elements of sameness, certainty, unity in diversity, protective function and speakers.

Let us note the main characteristics of identity.

Both individuals and groups have identity. An individual can be a member of many groups at once and therefore has the ability to switch identities. Group identity is less flexible.

Individuals, as well as groups, have multiple identities, for example, family, gender, professional, ethnic, national. The significance of these identities changes over time, and they either complement or conflict with each other. Only during difficult trials does one of them come out on top, overshadowing the others. K. Liebkind wrote: “Only extreme social situations, such as military battles, temporarily eliminate all identities except one, the most important.”

In international relations, national and state identities play a major role.

Identity is greatly influenced by how others perceive it. If, upon entering a new environment, a person finds himself in the position of a stranger, an outcast, then he himself will begin to consider himself a stranger. If the majority of a country views a minority as backward and ignorant, then members of that minority will internalize this attitude and it will become part of their identity.

People may strive for identity, but will achieve it only when they are accepted into their circle by those who have already acquired this identity. The people you want as your friends will only become so if they themselves want to see you as their friend. After graduation cold war Poles, Czechs and Hungarians waited tensely to see whether the West would recognize their claims to belong to Western Europe. They succeeded, but not all nations receive such a warm welcome. Europe does not notice Turkey, whose elite dreams of Westernizing the country. As a result, the Turks cannot answer for themselves who they are - Europeans or Asians - and to which geopolitical sphere - Europe, the West, the Middle East, the Islamic world, Central Asia - they belong.

Identities are constructs. We construct our own identities out of desire, necessity, or compulsion. Identities are imaginary entities - what we think about ourselves, what we strive for.

Identity is situational. We feel Russian when we travel abroad. To emphasize Pakistan's independence from India, Pakistan's founders emphasized Islamic identity. Muslim Bangladesh, justifying independence from Pakistan, emphasized the peculiarities of language and culture.

The “width” of identity can vary. For the French and Germans, European identity becomes more important in the event of conflicts with Japan or the United States. The Arabs say: “My brother and I are against your brothers, your brothers and I are against the whole world.”

The most important concept for understanding identity is that of the “significant other.” People interpret the world around them and their place in it through a basic process of categorization. . Categorization proceeds in accordance with the principle of bipolarity. Concepts were usually born in pairs - the concept of light appeared simultaneously with the concept of darkness, peace - with movement, life - with death. In accordance with this principle, there is a categorization of communities of which people perceive themselves as members (“We”), and those that they do not perceive as members (“They”). For example, in Old Russian language the word German meant both a person who spoke unclearly and incomprehensibly, and a foreigner: foreigners who did not speak Russian were perceived as almost mute. For Russia, the “significant Other” is the West, but for the West, the “significant Other” has always been Russia. Nations can interact with their significant others in a variety of ways. For example, it could be war or cooperation.

The main functions of identity are an adaptive function that protects integrity and individuality own experience, and an organizing function that organizes past experience into the individual "I".

Let us note some types of identity that appear in international relations. A positive identity gives a feeling of security and stability. A negative identity may be accompanied by a feeling of inferiority and even shame for members of one’s own people. Ascribed identities are directed by the external structures of society, as was the case in the Middle Ages, when identity accompanied a person from birth in the form of religious and class affiliation, profession and economic status. Acquired identities are subject to the independent choice of its “owner,” which is typical for modern post-industrial society. Monocultural identity is characteristic of those who identify themselves with one culture. People with dual citizenship have a bicultural identity. The population of supranational communities, such as the European Union, is beginning to develop a cosmopolitan identity.

The identities of a person or a state are quite permanent. Fair man always tells the truth, a principled person shows integrity even to his own detriment, a smart person tends to act wisely in all situations. However, unusual situations can “knock a person out of the saddle.” A person changes when he moves to a new place of residence, gets married, or suddenly gets rich. Something similar can be observed in the field of international relations. States also maintain continuity of identity and try to adhere to one line of behavior. China has preserved Confucian traditions for several millennia, and Muslim countries have not betrayed Islam. At the same time, there are examples when, as a result of social upheavals, countries changed their identity. In our country, dramatic changes in identities occurred at the beginning and end of the last century. Twice during the twentieth century, the Russian people rejected what previous generations had created with a tenacity worthy of better use, and began to build life anew. Japan's defeat in World War II had such a profound impact on the country's identity that, in a traditionally militaristic country, military efforts were directed toward economic development. Instead of a samurai, a businessman-exporter became a national hero. The Germans are trying to get away from the feeling of guilt for the Nazi past by dissolving their own identity into the pan-European one. This is one of the reasons why modern Germany is the main locomotive of the European Union.

Stability of identity can be disrupted external events. American economist T. Schelling spoke about the existence of two types of changes: single and cascading. Usually these two types follow one another. Rare isolated cases of changes suddenly acquire an avalanche-like character. To denote the transition from single changes to cascading ones, Schelling introduced the concept focal point. An example is the spread of a wave of protest in the late 1980s in Eastern Europe which led to the fall of communist regimes. In states where there were no general protests yet, isolated demonstrations arose that were quickly suppressed by the authorities. Suddenly the protest reached literally revolutionary levels. A previously completely helpless and demobilized society suddenly became more active and mobilized. What seemed almost impossible in 1988 became commonplace in 1989. The reason for these cascading changes is that people base their choices on assumptions about other people's actions in similar situations. If a person assumes that no one will picket the streets, then he is unlikely to decide to do so. But if a person is confident that others will also take part in protests, he is more likely to join the protesters.