High vowel sounds. Classification of vowel sounds

Vowel sounds- these are speech sounds, during the formation of which the outgoing stream of air does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, and therefore, acoustically, they are characterized by a predominance musical tone, or voices.

There are 6 vowel sounds in Russian: [a], [o], [e], [i], [s], [y]. They are heard most clearly under stress .

When pronouncing vowels, the shape and volume of the oral cavity may change. These changes depend on the participation or non-participation of the lips and the movement of the tongue vertically (the degree of elevation of the back of the tongue) and horizontally (the location of the elevation of the back of the tongue).

By the participation of the lips all vowel sounds are divided into two groups: vowels rounded or labialized (from lat. labium– lip), – [o], [u] and vowels unrounded, or unlabialized , – [i], [e], [s], [a].

When producing the sounds [o], [u], the lips are rounded and pulled forward. The lips do not take an active part in the formation of the sounds [a], [e], [i], [s]. The sound [o] differs from [u] by a lesser degree of prolongation and rounding of the lips. This can be easily noticed by muscle sensations when pronouncing, for example, the sounds [a] - [o] - [u] in a row.

By degree of rise upper, middle and lower rise.

During education high vowels, which include the sounds [i], [s], [u], the tongue is raised to the greatest extent.

Vowel formation lower rise, which is the sound [a] in Russian, is characterized by a minimal rise of the tongue.

Vowels medium rise, which include the sounds [e], [o], according to the degree of elevation of the tongue they occupy intermediate position between high and low vowels.

It is easy to replace different degrees of tongue elevation by pronouncing, for example, the sounds [u] - [o] - [a] in a row.

Classification of vowels (together with reduced ones) by articulation (Shcherba’s triangle)

At the place of rise the back of the tongue distinguishes vowels front, middle and back row .

During education front vowels, which include the sounds [i], [e], the front part of the back of the tongue moves towards the hard palate.

Vowel formation back row- these are the sounds [u], [o] - occurs when the back of the back of the tongue moves towards the soft palate.

Vowels middle row[ы], [а] in the place of tongue elevation occupy an intermediate position between the front and back vowels.

To make sure that when forming front, middle and back vowels, the tongue articulates in different parts, you can pronounce in a row, for example, the sounds [i] - [s] - [u].

So, depending on the articulation in the Russian language, six are clearly perceived by ear: different sounds: [i], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a].

Longitude. In a number of languages ​​(English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or similar articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are contrasted in duration of pronunciation, i.e. they differ, for example, short vowels: [a], [i], [u] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], .

Diphthongization. In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs.

Monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically homogeneous vowel.

Diphthong- a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special speech sound in which articulation begins differently than it ends. One diphthong element is always stronger than the other element. Diphthongs are of two types - descending and ascending.

U descending diphthong the first element is strong, and the second is weaker. Such diphthongs are characteristic of English. and German language: time, Zeit.

U ascending diphthong first element weaker than the second. Such diphthongs are typical of French, Spanish and Italian languages: pied, bueno, chiaro. For example, in such proper names as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

There are no diphthongs in Russian. The combination “vowel + th” in the words “paradise” and “tram” cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declensed, this quasi-diphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for the diphthong: “tram-em, para-yu”. But in Russian there are diphthongoids.

Diphthongoid- this is a stressed heterogeneous vowel, which at the beginning or end has an overtone of another vowel, articulatory-close to the main, stressed one. There are diphthongoids in the Russian language: house is pronounced “DuoOoM”.

Thrifthongs is a combination of three vowels (weak + strong + weak) pronounced as one syllable, for example, in Spanish: cambiáis - you are changing.

13.. Classification of consonant sounds.

Method of formation of consonant sounds (noisy: plosives, fricatives, affricates; sonorants). Place of formation (labial, lingual: anterior lingual, middle lingual, posterior lingual; lingual). Additional articulation of consonant sounds (palatalization, nasalization).

Consonants- these are speech sounds consisting only of noise, or of voice and noise, which are formed in the oral cavity, where a stream of air exhaled from the lungs encounters various obstacles, are called

The consonant sounds of the Russian language contain 37 sound units, each of which in a certain position is capable of performing a semantic distinguishing function:

1) [b], [b"], [c], [c"], [g], [g"], [d], [d"], [h], [z"], [p] , [p"], [f], [f"], [k], [k"], [t], [t"], [s], [s"];

2) [l], [l"], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [p], [p"];

3) [x], [x"], [g], [w], [c];

4) [h"], [j];

5) [w̅"], [zh̅"].

The classification of consonants is based on contrasting some features with others. In modern Russian, consonant sounds are divided into several classification criteria(acoustic and articulatory):

2) by place of education;

3) by method of education;

4) by the presence or absence of palatalization (“softening”, from Lat. palatum- sky).

By acoustic signs consonants differ according to the degree of participation of voice and noise . All consonants of the Russian language are divided into sonorous(from Latin sonorus- sonorous) and noisy.

Sonorant are characterized by the fact that in the composition of these sounds voice dominates the noise. In modern Russian these include: [l], [l"], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [r], [r"], [j].

Noisy consonants are characterized by the fact that their acoustic basis is noise, however, there are noisy consonants that are formed not only with the help of noise, but with some participation of the voice. Among noisy ones they differ deaf And voiced .

Z stinky are formed by noise accompanied by voice. In modern Russian these include: [b], [b"], [v], [v"], [g], [g"], [d], [d"], [z], [z "], [zh], [zh̅"].

Deaf are formed with the help of noise, without the participation of voice. When pronouncing, their vocal cords are not tense or vibrate. In modern Russian these include: [k], [k"], [p], [p"], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [f], [f "], [x], [x], [ts], [h"], [w], [w̅"].

Most noisy consonants of the Russian language are contrasted by deafness - voicedness: [b] - [p], [b"] - [p"], [c] - [f], [v"] - [f"], [d] - [t], [d"] - [t"], [z] - [s], [z"] - [s"], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], [g"] - [k"]; do not have pairs voiced voiceless consonants [sh̅"], [ts], [x], [x"], [h"].

Sounds [zh], [sh], [h], [sch] – sizzling , [z], [s], [ts] – whistling .

According to articulation characteristics the original ones are method of education and place of education.

By place of education noise, according to which speech organs take part in pronunciation, sounds are divided into labial and lingual.

A) Labial consonants with which the barrier is formed by the lips or lower lip and upper teeth. In Russian, labials are divided into labiolabial ([b], [p], [m], [b"], [p"], [m"]) and labiodental ([v], [v"], [f], [f"]).

When producing labial sounds, the active organ is the lower lip, and the passive organ is either the upper lip (labial sounds) or the upper teeth (labial sounds).

b) Depending on which part language creates a barrier, lingual consonants are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual.Language sounds make up the majority of all consonant sounds: anterior lingual sounds are formed with the participation of the front part of the back of the tongue; midlingual - with the participation of the middle part of the back of the tongue; posterior lingual - with the participation of the back of the tongue.

In Russian to front-lingual include [d], [t], [n], [z], [s], [l] and the corresponding soft sounds [d"], [t"], [n"], [z"], [ s"], [l"], as well as [ts], [h"], [sh], [sh̅"], [zh"].

The front-lingual ones include:

1) dental : [t], [t"], [d], [d"], [s], [s"], [z], [z"], [c], [n], [n"], [l], [l"];

2) palatodental : [w], [sh̅"], [zh], [zh̅"], [r], [r"], [h"].

The division of anterior lingual sounds into dental and palatodental sounds is made taking into account the passive organ. Such a passive organ serves in in this case or the upper teeth, or the base of the upper teeth.

TO middle language Only [j] belongs to sound.

Rear lingual sounds are [g], [k], [x], [g"], [k"], [x"].

Found in some languages lingual , which are divided into three groups: reed, for example, French [r]; pharyngeal- Ukrainian (g), German [h]; laryngeal: How individual sounds they are available in Arabic.

By method of education noise consonants are divided into:

A) Explosive (stop) , during the pronunciation of which there is a complete closure of the speech organs, with the force overcome by the air stream. These are [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k] and the corresponding soft variants [b"], [p"], [d"], [t"], [ g"], [k"].

B) Slotted (fricatives) , during the pronunciation of which the speech organs do not close completely, as a result of which a gap is formed through which air passes. Friction consonants are otherwise called spirants (from Latin spiro- I breathe). In Russian it is [v], [v"], [f], [f"], [z], [z"], [s], [s"], [zh], [zh̅"], [w], [sh̅"], [x].

IN) Africates, when pronouncing these consonants, the speech organs close, forming a barrier, which is then torn apart by air, resulting in a gap. In this case, the closure and rupture are instantaneous. These are the sounds [ch"] and [ts]. When pronouncing the sounds [ch"] and [ts], it is necessary to strictly preserve two points of articulation: the bow and the gap. First, the tip of the tongue closes with the teeth (with the sound [ts]) or with the front part of the palate (with the sound [ch"]), then the air with light explosions opens the organs of speech, which creates a gap through which the air noisily comes out, so the sound [ts] consists, as it were, of the sounds [t] and [s] fused together, and the sound [ch "] - of the sounds fused together soft sounds[t"] and [sh̅"].

G) Trembling consonants, or vibrating , during the formation of which the active organs of speech vibrate. In Russian these are the sounds [р] and [р"].

D) Connectively-passing consonants, during the pronunciation of which the organs of speech are completely closed, but are not interrupted by air, since the air passes through the nose or mouth. These are the sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n"]. So, when the sounds [l] and [l "] are formed, the front part of the tongue closes with the upper teeth, but between the lateral edges of the tongue and the lateral teeth, gaps form through which air escapes. Therefore, the sounds [l] and [l"] are called lateral. When the sounds [m] and [m"] are formed, the lips are tightly closed, and when the sounds [n] and [n"] are formed, the tongue is tightly adjacent to the upper teeth; but there is no explosion is formed because air, without breaking the closed organs of speech, exits through the nose. Therefore, the sounds [m], [m"], [n], [n"] are called nasal.

Most consonant sounds of the Russian language are opposed to each other based on hardness-softness: [b] - [b"], [p] - [p"], [v] - [c"], [f] - [f"], [d] - [d"], [t] - [t"], [l] - [l"], [m] - [m"], [n] - [n"], [r] - [r"], [s] - [s"], [g] - [g"], [x] - [x"], [k] - [k"]: [nose] - [n"os] - nose - carried; [vos] - [v"os] - cart - carried; [rat] - [p "at] - rad - row; [stél] - [steel"] - steel - steel; [gave] - [gave"] - gave - far; [brother] - [brother"] - brother - take.

When soft consonants are formed, the accompanying movement is added to the main sound-forming movement. additional movement speech organs: the middle part of the back of the tongue rises up to the hard palate, as with the sound [j], as a result of which the consonant acquires a special sound, which we conventionally call softness, and in transcription we characterize the sound as palatalized. Have no pairs and are only hard ones : [zh], [w], [ts], only soft : [zh̅"], [w̅"], [h"], [j].

Nasalization- a change in sound, consisting in the acquisition of a nasal timbre by the sound and caused by the raising of the palatine velum and the exit of the voice simultaneously through the mouth and nose. For example, sounds (vowels and consonants) in a position in front of the nasals can undergo nasalization in the language; at further development nasalization such sounds can become nasal, cf. Russian dialect mnuk instead of grandson. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, [õ], [ã], are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages ​​are non-nasal (formed when the palatal curtain is raised, blocking the path of air flow through the nose), but in some languages ​​(French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic), along with non-nasal vowels, nasal vowels are widely used.

Classification of consonants according to articulatory characteristics

14.Changes in sounds in the flow of speech.

Combinatorial changes: assimilation, dissimilation, accommodation, diaeresis, haplology, epenthesis, metathesis. Positional changes: reduction of vowels, deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word, prosthesis.

Sounds do not exist in isolation from each other. They are in constant interaction and influence each other, causing various sound changes.

In the flow of speech, sounds are combined with each other to form words, speech beats, phrases. The ability of sounds to combine with each other is called syntagmatics , and the combinations themselves
sounds - syntagmas .

Acting in combination with each other, sounds retain their qualities in some conditions, but change them in others. The ability of sound units to vary is called paradigmatics , A a set of variants of one sound – paradigm : [s"n"eg / c"n"ek / s"n"iega / s"n"ieg"ir" / c"n"gΛv"ik], where [g], [g"], [k ] is the paradigm of the sound [g], i.e. variant of the same sound [g]; [e], [ie], [b] – the paradigm of the sound [e].

The concepts of position of sounds are associated with the doctrine of syntagmatics and paradigmatics.

Position - This is the position of the sound in the word. Distinguish strong and weak sound positions.

Strong positions These are the positions of sounds in which they differ greatest number sounds: [house - tom / heat - ball // m"ir / cheese / sat / mush / rum /l"es //].

IN weak positions there is a failure to distinguish one of the correlative sounds: [here/sat/sΛdý/sudΛvot//].

Topic: Vowel sounds and their classifications

Vowels are musical tones formed as a result of the passage of a weak air jet without obstacles with general diffuse tension in the speech apparatus.

TOvowel classification

The basis for the classification of vowel sounds is

1) position of the tongue (i.e., the place and degree of elevation of the tongue);

2) participation or non-participation of the lips;

3) participation or non-participation of the velum palatine;

4) duration of sound, or longitude;

5) completeness of articulation and some etc.

When forming vowels, the most active organ of speech is the tongue, which makes movements in two directions - horizontal, moving forward or backward, and vertical, rising or falling.

These directions in the movement of the tongue are interconnected: moving forward or moving back, the tongue simultaneously rises to a greater or lesser extent towards the hard palate. However, for a clearer description of vowels, it is advisable to take into account each direction of tongue movement separately.

1) According to the position of the tongue:

A) according to the place where the tongue rises (in a row), vowels are distinguished

a) front,

b) average and

c) back row.

When forming vowels front row the entire body of the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to one degree or another towards the hard palate. Such vowels include Russians [i] [e], German [ ü ] [ ü ber]; [ ö ][ ö ffnen].

When forming vowels middle row the body of the tongue is somewhat pushed back, and its entire back is raised high to the palate. At the same time, the tip of the tongue also rises slightly. This is how Russian vowels are formed [s] And [ A]:in the word [ garden].

When pronouncing vowels back row the entire body of the tongue moves back, the back of the back rises towards the soft palate, and the tip of the tongue lowers and moves somewhat away from the lower teeth. Back vowels are Russian [ at] And [ O], German [ A:] in a word [ kA:m] “came.”

and], [s] [y] and you will feel the difference between the front, middle and back vowels.

B) according to the degree of tongue elevation , or by the degree of mouth opening (by rise) they distinguish

A) high vowels, or closed, narrow vowels: [ and], [s], [y];

b) mid-rise vowels - [uh], [o];

c) lower vowels, or open, wide vowels - [A].

Say the sounds [ and], [e], [a]. Notice how the mouth gradually opens wider and wider, and lower jaw falls. If we pronounce sounds in reverse order, the mouth will gradually close, and the lower jaw will approach upper lip. At the same time, feel how the tongue is in to varying degrees rises with one or another part of it to the palate.

Table 1. Classification of Russian vowels

Note: General tables vowels according to Swift and according to the IPA (International Phonetic Association), see pp. 185 and 188-189 of the textbook on introduction to linguistics (M., 2002).

3) According to the position of the lips, all vowels are divided into two groups:

A) labialized, or rounded. When formed, their lips are pulled forward and rounded: [o], [y], German: [ ü ], [ ö ];

b) non-labialized, or unrounded. When formed, their lips do not stretch forward and are not rounded: [ and], [e], [a].

4) According to the position of the soft palate, or velum:

A) nasalized, or nasal, during the formation of which the palatine curtain is lowered, i.e., is in a neutral position, and the passage into the nasal cavity is open. Nasal vowels are found in some modern Romance (eg French, Portuguese) and Slavic (Polish) languages; in ancient times everything Slavic languages had nasal vowels. In modern Russian, nasal vowels are possible only with deformation of the nasopharynx.

b) clean(oral, non-nasal, or non-nasal). When pure vowels are formed, the velum palatine is raised and pressed against the back wall of the pharynx, the passage into the nasal cavity is closed, and it does not serve as an additional resonator. Most vowels in the world's languages ​​are pure.

5) According to duration or longitude, vowels are:

A) long And

b) brief.

In Russian, stressed vowels are usually longer. In German, English, Czech, longitude and shortness are a very important differential feature of vowels: English: it [ it], eat [ i: t]; German: im [ im], ihm [ i: m].

6) according to the complexity of articulation (or composition), vowels are divided into

A) monophthongs And

b) polyphthongs ì diphthongs [ ai], [ au]: [ n ai t] night; [ d a u n] down

î triphthongs fire

Monophthongs are characterized by articulatory and acoustic homogeneity; When articulating a vowel, the speech organs do not change their position.

Diphthong is complex sound, the result of the fusion of two and sometimes three vowels in one syllable. A diphthong is a sound produced with a single articulatory movement; diphthongs have longer duration than monophthongs. Diphthongs are available in English, German, and French.

A triphthong is a combination of three vowels within one syllable.

Diphthongs can be descending And ascending. U downstream of diphthongs, the first element is syllabic; the tension of the utterance is strong at first, then weakens; at rising In diphthongs, the second vowel is the syllable-forming vowel; The tension of the utterance is weak at first, then increases.

There are diphthongs true And false. The true ones diphthongs - both components are equal, both are clearly pronounced, but do not break up into two syllables. U false diphthongs only one element is syllabic : May

Characteristics of vowels

[i] - vowel, stressed, front row, upper rise, non-labialized.

Consonants

The passage in the mouth through which air flows from the lungs can be:

1. free, when there is no obstacle and air passes without friction against the walls; free passage sounds are vowels;

2. narrowed, when certain organs in the mouth, coming together, form a gap in which a stream of air produces friction against the walls of the passage; the sounds of a narrowed passage are fricative consonants (otherwise spirants, fricative, fricative, flowing, aspirated): fricative consonants include [f], [v], [s], [z], [sh], [zh], [j ], [x], as well as glottal aspirates [h];

3. closed, when in the path of the air stream the contacting organs erect a complete barrier - a closure, which either must be directly overcome, or the air stream must seek to bypass the closure; These are stop consonants, divided into a number of subtypes depending on how the stop is overcome.

Stoppers are divided into:

• explosive, when the bow explodes under the pressure of a stream of air and the stream of air passes directly from the oral cavity to the outside; this is [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], as well as a glottal explosion [?];

• affricates(stop-fricatives), when the stop itself opens to allow a stream of air to pass into the gap and the air passes through this gap with friction, but unlike fricatives, not for a long time, but instantly; this is [pf], [ts], [dz], [h], [j];

• nasal(or nasal), when the bow remains intact, and the air passes bypassing through the nose (for which you need to lower the soft palate and move the small tongue forward, without unclenching the bow in the mouth, which prevents the air from escaping through the mouth; the difference between the nasals is explained by the difference in the oral resonance depending on where the bow is formed); these are [m], [n] and other n (gn French, ng German and English);

• lateral(or lateral), when the bow remains intact, but the side of the tongue is lowered down, and a lateral bypass is formed between it and the cheek, through which the air escapes; this method is possible only when the tip of the tongue is closed with the teeth or alveoli, as well as the middle part of the tongue with the hard palate; This different types[l];

• trembling(or vibrants), when the bow consistently and periodically opens until there is a free passage and closes again, that is, the organs of speech produce trembling or vibration, as a result of which a stream of air comes out intermittently only at the moments of opening; This various kinds p; lingual burr, when a small tongue trembles, touching the back big tongue; lingual, when the tip of the tongue trembles, touching the hard palate (this is the Russian [p]), and, finally, labial, when the lips tremble (for example, in the word Whoa!).

Consonants, characteristic feature which is the noise from the convergence of the organs of pronunciation, which either makes up the entire content of the sound (voiceless noisy consonants), or prevails over the voice (voiced noisy consonants). The voice when pronouncing noisy consonants is either absent or plays a secondary role. In the Russian language, noisy consonants include: a) voiceless noisy consonants [k], [x], [p], [f], [t], [s], [sh], [ch], [ts] and b ) voiced noisy consonants [g], [th], [b], [v], [d], [z], [z]. However, the consonants [в] and [й] occupy an intermediate position between voiced noisy consonants and sonorant ones.

Sonorant

In Russian, sonorant consonants include r, l, m, n, y" (r", l", m", n")

Vowel sounds and their classification

Vowels differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone - and the absence of noise.

The existing vowel classification takes into account following conditions formation of vowels: 1) the degree of elevation of the tongue, 2) the location of the elevation of the tongue, and 3) the participation or non-participation of the lips. The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, the state of which determines the quality of the vowel.

According to the degree of vertical rise of the tongue, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: vowels of the upper rise [i], [s], [y]; mid-rise vowels e [e], [o]; low vowel [a].

The horizontal movement of the tongue leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front vowels [i], e [e]; middle vowels [ы], [а] and back vowels [у], [о].

The participation or non-participation of the lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) [o], [u] and non-labialized (unrounded) [a], e [e], [i], [s].

2. Accent(accent) - highlighting in speech a particular unit in a sequence of homogeneous units using phonetic means. There are verbal, syntagmatic (beat) and phrasal stress. Special view accents - logical emphasis, the purpose of which is to semantically emphasize the most important in a given speech situation words in a sentence, 3 phonetic components of stress are distinguished (the phonetic type of stress is determined by the predominant component): 1) intensity achieved by increasing muscle tension and increasing exhalation (stress based on this property is called dynamic, less often - expiratory); 2) the height of the voice tone (based on this feature, musical stress, which can be realized in several varieties, for example, ascending and descending); 3) duration (based on this feature, the third type of stress is conventionally distinguished - quantitative, but it has not been registered in its pure form). Typically, languages ​​that have an accent combine all of these features, but their significance varies. In relation to the morphological structure of a word, it is important to distinguish movable And motionless(constant) stress.

Syllable division. Types of syllables.

Syllable division - determining the boundaries between syllables in a word.

The basic law of syllable division is the law of ascending sonority. The sounds in a syllable are distributed from least sonorous to most sonorous. This law is conveyed in the rules:

All vowels are like syllabic sounds form the top of the syllables and are distributed over different syllables spider

One consonant between vowels belongs to the following vowel ha-la-wa

The combination of noisy sounds between vowels is assigned to the next syllable ka-ska la-pka

The combination of noisy and sonorant sounds is classified as the next syllable o-kno sa-fuck

The combination of sonorants between vowels refers to the next syllable karma

When sonorants are combined with noisy ones, a syllable separation occurs between them map

The combination of a non-syllabic J followed by noisy or sonorant sounds typhoon

Syllables are distinguished by structure:

Covered - a syllable with a consonant at the beginning, and uncovered

Full – closed and covered juice

Truncated from the beginning – closed and uncovered mind, suit

Truncated at the end haze

Open and uncovered aw

Hyphenation – objective phenomenon language, transfer - conditional rules. The basic principle is phonetic. The word to be transferred is divided in accordance with syllable division gates. According to this principle, the rule prohibits leaving at the end or moving a part of a word that does not form a syllable. You cannot separate a consonant from the vowel that follows it, but when several consonants come together between vowels, transfer is allowed.

Morphological principle - division into syllables should occur between prefixes, roots and significant parts difficult wordspod-beat send russian.

Restrictions: Russian words cannot begin with ы, й, ь, ъ, and you cannot hyphenate a part of a word starting with these letters.

3.Word it took a person to give a name to everything that is in the world. After all, in order to talk about something and even think about it, you need to call it something, give it a name. Each word has its own sound, letter shell, individual lexical (the meaning of the word) and typical grammatical (signs of the word as a part of speech) meanings, for example: [t"ul1] - tulle; individual lexical meaning - “thin mesh fabric"; the word tulle - noun masculine, 2nd declension, singular, nominative case.
All the words of a language form its vocabulary, or vocabulary.

A word can have one lexical meaning; such words are called unambiguous, for example: dialogue, purple, saber, on guard. A word can have two or more lexical meanings; such words are called polysemous.

Polysemy(from the Greek poIysCmos - polysemous), polysemy - the presence of more than one meaning in a language unit. Paronyms(from para... and Greek ónyma - name, title, word), words that are close to each other in sound, the partial coincidence of the external form of which is random, that is, not due to either semantics or word-formation processes, for example time and burden, appeal and operate, etc.

4.Graphics called application area knowledge about the language, which establishes the composition of the styles used in writing and the sound meanings of words. Features of Russian graphics. Modern Russian graphics are distinguished by a number of features that have developed historically and represent a certain graphics system:

1. Russian graphics do not have an alphabet in which for each word pronounced in speech stream sound available special letter. There are significantly fewer letters in the Russian alphabet than sounds in real speech. As a result, the letters of the alphabet turn out to be polysemantic and can have several sound meanings.

2) the second feature of Russian graphics is the division of letters according to the number of sounds indicated. In this regard, the letters of the Russian alphabet fall into three groups:

a) letters devoid of sound value. These are the letters b and b, which do not denote any sounds, as well as the so-called “unpronounceable consonants” in, for example, words: sun, heart, etc.

b) letters denoting two sounds. These are the letters E [j], E, Yu, I.

c) letters denoting one sound. These are all the letters of the Russian alphabet, with the exception of the letters included in the first and second groups.

3) The third feature of Russian graphics is the presence of single-digit and double-digit letters in it. The first are letters that have one basic meaning:

A, O, U, E, S; F, C, Ch, Sh, Shch, J.

The second, that is, two-digit letters include:

A) all letters denoting consonant sounds, paired by hardness and softness;

B) letters denoting vowel sounds: E, Yo, Yu, Ya.

The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is that in Russian writing in certain cases The unit of writing is not a letter, but a syllable.

Such a syllable, that is, a combination of consonant and vowel letters, is integral graphic element, the parts of which are mutually conditioned. The syllabic principle of graphics is used in the designation of paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness.

In modern Russian, consonant sounds, paired in hardness and softness, have a phonemic meaning, that is, they serve to distinguish the sound shells of words. However, in the Russian alphabet there are no separate letters to designate consonant sounds paired in softness and hardness. The absence of individual letters is compensated by the presence in our graphics of double outlines of vowel sounds. Thus, the letters A, O, U, E, Y indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant, and the letters E, E, Yu, Ya, I indicate softness.

The softness of a consonant phoneme before a consonant and at the end of a word is indicated by a special letter b:

bathhouse, believe, pray, hit, etc.

the syllabic principle also applies to the designation of the consonant sound [j] (iot), and this application is carried out only within words. The consonant sound yot is indicated by a special letter Y only when the syllable ends with this sound following the vowel.

In all other positions, the sound yot together with the next vowel sound is denoted by one letter, namely:

I - , E - , E - , Yu - .

The main departure from syllabic principle – designation of vowel sounds after consonants, unpaired in hardness and softness. So, after always hard consonants [zh], [sh], [ts], vowel sounds are designated, contrary to the syllabic principle, with the letters I, E, Yo, and occasionally Yu, Ya.

After the always soft [h], [sh"], contrary to the syllabic principle, the letters A, O, U are written.

Special cases of deviations from the syllabic principle:

1) writing foreign (usually French) words with ьО instead of Ё, compare: broth - linen;

2) spelling complex abbreviated words with ьО, МА, ьУ, ИУ, compare: village district, village airfield, Dalugol, construction site;

3) writing at the beginning foreign words YO instead of Yo, compare: hedgehog, ruff - iodine, Yorkshire, New York.

Graphic tools: relationship of fonts, division into paragraphs, arrangement of lines, capital letters, punctuation marks.

5.SPELLING- system of spelling rules.

Main sections of spelling:

• writing morphemes in various parts speeches,
• merged, separate and hyphenated spelling words,
• use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
• word transfer.

Principles of Russian spelling . The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological principle, the essence of which is that common to related words morphemes retain a single outline in writing, but in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.

The second principle of Russian spelling is phonetic spelling, those. words are written the same way they are heard. An example would be the spelling of prefixes in z-s(mediocre - restless).

Spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2 or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling that follows the rules of spelling.

Spelling rule - this is the rule for spelling the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on language conditions.

Word hyphenation rules

• Words are transferred syllable by syllable (ma-ma, ba-ra-ban),
• You cannot separate a consonant from the following vowel (ge-ro"y),
• You cannot leave a part of a syllable on a line or move part of a syllable (push-tyak, pus-tyak - correct; pust-yak (incorrect),
• You cannot leave or transfer one vowel on a line, even if it represents a whole syllable (ana-to-miya - correct; a-na-to-mi-ya - incorrect),
• You can't tear it off ( soft sign) and ъ ( solid sign) from the previous consonant (detour, less),
• The letter does not break away from the previous vowel (ray-on),
• When combining several consonants, transfer options are possible (sister, sister, sister); in such cases, such a transfer is preferable in which the morphemes are not parsed (pod-zhat).

6 . Morphemics- morphemic structure of the language, the totality of morphemes isolated in words (see) and their types; a branch of linguistics that studies the types and structure of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole. The main objects of study in mathematics are morphemes, their formal modifications - morphs (see) and their linear combinations (the word as a whole as a sequence of morphemes, the stem of the word, the word form). Root morphemes , or roots, are mandatory part words. IN significant words With non-derivative basis the lexical meaning of the root coincides with its general lexical meaning: forest- And forest, carried And carry, sin" - And blue, there, frau.Service morphemes, or affixes (from Latin affixus- attached), is an optional part of the word. In Russian, affixes are represented by prefixes (or prefixes), suffixes, interfixes (connective morphemes), postfixes and endings (or inflections). Zero formative morphemes are:

1. endings of nouns of the 1st declension (accepted at school) in the form plural genitive case (swallows, platforms, lamps);

2. endings of nouns of the masculine gender of the 2nd type (accepted at school) and the feminine gender of the 3rd declension ( crab, cockroach, rye, night);

3. endings of qualitative adjectives and participles in short form masculine singular ( healthy, attractive, resourceful, recorded, seized, detained);

4. endings of possessive adjectives in the masculine singular form nominative case(b Arany, squirrel, bear, father, grandmother, uncle);

5. endings of cardinal numbers in the form of the nominative case (nine, nineteen, eightten);

6. verb endings in indicative mood in the past tense form of the masculine singular ( admired, read, came up with).

Remember that if in a word null ending, this does not mean that there is no ending at all. It exists, just in some form. of this word this ending does not have a sound or letter shell, but in other forms we can see and hear this ending.

For example, swallow – swallow A, house – house A, read – read A, attractive – attractive A, ram – mutton his, eightten – eight And ten And.

Compare with words in which there is no and cannot be an ending(because they are immutable): yesterday, deep down, from afar, reading.

Formative there may also be some suffixes, for example, suffixes used to form the past tense masculine singular certain verbs (brought Ø , took out Ø ). Compare with forms when this suffix is ​​materially expressed in other forms: brought l oh, took it out l And.

Word formation- on the one hand, this is the very process of formation of new words, on the other, a special branch of the science of language, in which the word-formation system of the Russian language is studied. Lexico-semantic method of word formation. The formation of new words as a result of the breakdown of words into homonyms, i.e. the acquisition of the same lexical unit different meanings. The formation of new words as a result of fusion into one lexical item a whole combination of words. Fast flowing (from fast flowing). Morphological method word formation. The main method of enrichment vocabulary Russian language, which consists in creating new words by combining morphemes based on the bases and word-forming affixes existing in the language.

7. Grammar(ancient Greek γραμματική from γράμμα - “letter”) as a science is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagms, sentences, texts). Grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammatical rules.

Speaking about grammar as a science, we distinguish:

• historical grammar - a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in development through a comparison of various stages of the history of language;
• descriptive grammar- a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in synchronic terms

Main task Grammar is the study of the meanings of language. The subject of grammar is those meanings that are found in coherent speech, and primarily in its individual units, utterances-sentences. Individual acts of thinking, the means of expression and communication of which is language, find their form in sentences. Representing statements complete in meaning, sentences have different structure, and therefore their meaning differs. The task of grammar is to study this structure of sentences and the meanings determined by this structure, or, in other words, the task of grammar is to study the forms of sentences as the basic unit of speech.

Direct study of the forms of coherent speech and sentences belongs to the section of grammar called syntax. But, besides this section, the grammar has a section called morphology, in which it is no longer the forms of the sentence itself that are studied, but the forms of its shortest elements - words. Both of these sections of grammar, morphology and syntax, are closely related, since studying one of them is impossible without studying the other.

Grammatical category - closed system mutually exclusive and opposed to each other grammatical meanings(grammeme), which specifies the division of a vast set of word forms (or a small set of high-frequency word forms with an abstract type of meaning) into non-overlapping classes, the difference between which significantly affects the degree grammatical correctness text. Grammatical meaning- meaning expressed by an inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator). Jump to: navigation, search

Grammatical form - language sign, in which one way or another in a grammatical way(in other words, regularly, standardly) the grammatical meaning is expressed. IN various languages means of expressing grammatical meanings can be zero and non-zero affixes, non-positional alternations phonemes (internal inflections), stress patterns, reduplication, function words, word order, intonation. In isolating and related languages, the main way of expressing the grammatical meanings of words is their syntactic compatibility.

Vowel sounds

Stressed vowels: classification features

The classification of vowel sounds is based on signs that describe the functioning of the speech organs:

1) movement of the tongue forward - backward (row);

2) movement of the tongue up and down (lifting);

3) position of the lips (labialization).

Based on their series, vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating front vowels ([i], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the mouth. When articulating back vowels ([у], [о]) - in the back. Middle vowels ([ы], [а]) occupy an intermediate position.

The rising sign describes the position of the tongue when moving up or down. Vowels top lift([i], [s], [y]) are characterized high position tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the low vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. Vowel medium rise([e], [o]) a place is allocated between the named extreme groups.

The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized(or rounded), because when pronouncing them, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The remaining vowels are pronounced with neutral lips and are non-labialized: [i], [s], [e], [a].

The table of stressed vowel vowels is as follows:
row: front middle rear
rise:

upper i´ ы´ ý (labial)

middle e´ ó (labial)

Unstressed vowels: classification features

In unstressed syllables, sounds different from those under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the speech organs. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in Russian are reduced.

Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed vowels (cf.: s[a]dy´ gardens ´ - s[á]dik sadik, p[i]lá pila - p[i´]lit púlit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.

On the other hand, not only the duration changes, but also the very quality of the vowels. In this regard, they talk about quality reduction vowels in unstressed position. In the pair s[ъ]dovod sadod - s[а]dik sadik unstressed [ъ] is not just shorter - it differs from the stressed [а].

Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and simultaneously high-quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed words, the tongue does not reach extreme points advancement and seeks to take a more neutral position.

The most “convenient” sound in this regard is the sound [ъ]. This is a vowel of the middle row, middle rise, non-labialized: s[ъ]molyot plane, b[ъ]rozdá furrow. The articulation of all unstressed vowels shifts towards the “central” [ъ].

When pronouncing unstressed [ы], [и], [у], [а] the force of change is not very significant: cf. r[y]bak fisherman - r[y´]ba fish, [s'i]net blue - [s'i´]niy súniy, r[y]ká ruká - r[ý]ki rýki, l[ a]say to caress -l[á]skovy affectionate .. Unstressed [s], [i], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as the stressed ones, slightly shifting them to the center.

Unstressed [b] ([с'ь]neuva sineva) should take an intermediate position between unstressed [and] and “central” [b].

The sound “er” is characterized as a vowel of the front-middle row, upper-middle rise, non-labialized.

The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [ъ] and [ь] stand out for their brevity. The remaining vowels are pronounced more clearly.

Vowel table, supplemented unstressed sounds, takes the following form:

row: front middle rear
rise:

upper i´ y´ y(labial)y
and y

b
average
e´ Ъ ó (labial.)

lower a
á

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions depend on a number of conditions:

1) places in relation to the stressed syllable,

2) positions in absolute beginning words,

3) hardness/softness of the preceding consonant.

The place in relation to the stressed syllable determines the degree of vowel reduction. In phonetics, it is customary to name syllables not according to their order in a word, but according to the place they occupy relative to the stressed syllable. All unstressed syllables are divided into prestressed and overstressed. The numbering of pre-stressed syllables is carried out in the direction from the stressed syllable, that is, from right to left.

In the first prev stressed syllable four vowels are possible - unstressed [u], [i], [s], [a]: n[u]zhda need, [h'i]s y'chasy, sh[y]lka silk, n[a]chnoy nocturnal

In the remaining unstressed syllables (second, third prestressed and post-stressed) strongly reduced vowels [ъ], [ь], as well as the sound [у] are pronounced. In the second pre-stressed syllable: d[b]movoy smoke and brownie, [m’j]sorubka meat grinder, [ch’u]dvorny miraculous.

In post-stressed syllables: swamp and swamps, tender gentle and tender, blue and blue, across the field, horse with horse.

In overstressed syllables at the absolute end of the word, along with the sounds [ъ], [ь] and [у], the vowel [ы] is recorded, only very briefly: not [y] notes, not [ъ] note, not [т'ь] note , note[y] note.

The position at the absolute beginning of a word after a pause also affects the characteristics of vowel reduction. In this position, the sounds [u], [i], [a] are pronounced, regardless of their distance from the stressed syllable: [u] remove remove, [and] exporter exporter, [a] talk about stipulate.

Features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.

In a stressed syllable: stressed [ý], [i´], [ы´], [e´], [ó], [á]

In the 1st pre-stressed syllable,

at the absolute beginning of a word: unstressed [u], [i], [s], [a]

In the 2nd, 3rd pre-stressed syllable,

in stressed syllables: unstressed [ъ], [ь], [у] + [ы] (at the absolute end of the word)

Hardness/softness of the preceding consonant - important factor, which determines the possibility of the appearance of certain vowels:

1) after the solid ones there may appear [u], [s], [a], [b]: [lu]govoi meadow, [ly]set bald, [la]rets casket, [l]horses;

Vowels are purely tonal sounds. Originating in the larynx as a result of vibration vocal cords, musical rush, the voice acquires a special timbre in the supraglottic cavities. Mouth and throat -

These are the resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the volume and shape of the resonating cavities, which can change as a result of movements of the lips, tongue and lower jaw. Each vowel is pronounced in a special position of the speech organs, characteristic only of this sound.

The classification of vowel sounds is based on three characteristics: the participation of the lips; the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate; the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward horizontally.

• 1. Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded (or labialized) and unglobbed (or unlabialized). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer, rounded and protrude forward, reducing the exit opening and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding can be different: less at [o], greater at [y]. The vowels [a|, [e], [i], [s] are destroyed.
• 2. According to the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue in relation to

the vowels of the upper rise are distinguished towards the palate: [and],

[s], [y]; middle rise: [e], [o]; lower lift: [a]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually moves slightly away from the upper, creating a narrow mouth opening; therefore, high vowels are also called narrow m and. When articulating lower vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening; therefore, low vowels are also called wide.

3. The front vowels differ according to the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward horizontally: [i], [e]; middle row: [s], [a]; back row: [y], [o]. When articulating front, middle or back vowels, the tongue is concentrated in the front, middle or back of the mouth, respectively. The shape of the tongue can be different. When forming front vowels, the front part of the tongue rises towards the front of the palate. When forming back vowels, the back of the tongue rises towards the back of the palate. And when forming middle vowels, the tongue either rises with the middle part to the middle part of the palate, as sometimes happens when pronouncing [s], or lies flat, as when pronouncing [a].

But the division into three rises and three rows does not reflect the full richness of vowel sounds. So, in addition to [and], there is also a sound pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a slightly lower rise of the tongue. This sound is called "[and] open"; in a more accurate transcription it is [and e], i.e. "[and], prone to [e]." There is “[e] closed” - a sound that differs from [e] with a slightly greater closedness of the mouth and a slightly higher rise of the tongue; in a more accurate transcription it is [e and] or [e]. Thus, open and closed vowels are “shades” of sounds, pronounced with a slightly greater openness/closeness of the mouth and a slightly smaller/greater lift of the tongue.

Shades of sounds can be considered as special sounds. Then the table of vowels should be more detailed (although, of course, not all Russian vowels are shown in it):

The vowel [o] is pronounced, for example, in the words po]khod, gore]d. It can be pronounced in isolation if you form a continuous series of sounds from [s] to [a] and stop in the middle.

The vowels [a], [e], [o], [u] are advanced and upward compared to [a], [e], [o], [u]. They are pronounced between soft consonants: five[p"at"], sing[Pat"], aunt[t"bt"e], tulle[t "ul"].

The vowel [e] is pronounced under stress after a hard consonant: m[er, sh[est.(To denote this vowel, the sign [„] is used and the letter is the sign of the International phonetic alphabet, indicating that the vowel is moved back.)

The vowels [and e], [s e], m are only in an unstressed position: [and e]hide, d[s °]shy, e[a uh ]yes. For some speakers, instead of [a°], the sound is [d], an unrounded vowel, but the position of the tongue is intermediate between [a] and [o].