The first changes occurred already during the short reign of Peter 1’s wife, Empress Catherine 1. On the advice of influential state dignitaries (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin), she established a special body that was supposed to rise above all government agencies of the empire. He became Supreme privy council, received the status of the main government body under the Empress. It was presided over by the Empress, its composition was determined by her and consisted of seven people: D.A. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, G.I. Golovkin, A.I. Osterman, D.M. Golitsyn and son-in-law of Peter I - Karl Holstein.
The Supreme Privy Council had jurisdiction over all critical issues domestic and foreign policy. He was in charge of the appointment of senior officials, financial issues of the state, and the audit board reported to him. In addition, three most important boards were subordinate to the Council: Military, Admiralty and Foreign. Control, investigative and supervisory functions were also transferred to him. For this purpose, the Main Police Chief Office and the Preobrazhensky Prikaz were reassigned to him.
The emergence of a new supreme body of government could not but affect the status higher authorities public administration established in the Petrine era. Thus, by decision of the Empress, the Senate lost the title of Governing and was subordinated to the same Supreme Privy Council. All matters of interest to the “supreme leaders” were removed from the jurisdiction of the Senate. From now on, the Supreme Privy Council sent decrees to the Senate and demanded reports (reports) from it. Complaints against the Senate and collegiums could be submitted to the Privy Council. Senators were appointed from candidates recommended by the Council.
Catherine I herself did not have much inclination for state affairs. The Supreme Privy Council, the de facto head of which was His Serene Highness Prince Menshikov, in fact replaced the Empress. Proof of this was the decree of August 4, 1726, according to which all laws were signed either by the empress or by the Supreme Privy Council.
Reign of Peter II
Catherine I's successor is Peter II (son of Tsarevich Alexei, grandson of Peter I) by virtue of his young age(he was barely 12 years old when he ascended the throne) was not involved in government affairs. Under him, the Supreme Privy Council, which included representatives of the group that opposed Menshikov - the Dolgoruky princes, actually concentrated all supreme power in its hands. During this period, the struggle among the “higher-ups” for influence on the young ruler intensified. The Dolgoruky group gained the upper hand. Menshikov's influence was reduced to zero; by decision of the Supreme Privy Council in 1727, he himself was exiled to Siberia, and his property was confiscated.
Reign of Anna Ioanovna
With the death of fifteen-year-old Peter II, the direct inheritance of the throne by the Romanov dynasty through the male line was interrupted. The struggle for power intensified. The fate of the throne was decided by the “sovereigns.” The law on succession to the throne, issued by Peter I, allowed any member of the Romanov family to be invited to the throne at the discretion of the tsar. While the king was away, his functions were performed by the Supreme Privy Council. He rejected the candidacy of Peter I’s daughter Elizabeth as “illegitimate” and opted for the niece of Peter the Great, the widowed Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna.
The Duchess of Courland could occupy the Russian throne only by signing the “conditions” (conditions), the authors of which were V.L. Dolgoruky and D.M. Golitsyn. The “conditions” significantly limited imperial power in favor of the “sovereigns.” Without their consent, the queen could not enter into war and make peace, grant noble ranks above the rank of colonel, take away and grant estates and estates, or independently promote anyone to the court. In accordance with the “conditions,” the guard was subordinated to the Council, and the Empress assumed the obligation “...If I do not fulfill this promise, I will be deprived of the Russian crown.” Anna, who was in extremely tight financial conditions, easily signed all this. However, seeing that the nobility did not support the “supreme leaders” in their desire to strengthen their positions by limiting the power of the autocrat, she tore the “standards” in half, thereby depriving them legal force. Thus, Anna Ioanovna ascended the throne as an autocratic empress.
The period of Anna Ioanovna's reign was called "Bironovism"- named after the all-powerful favorite Ernst Johann Biron. Without holding any official positions, Biron actually managed all state affairs: he appointed and dismissed senior officials, was in charge of the expenditure of public funds, and the issuance of all kinds of awards and privileges. He looked down on the Russian nobles, whose role in the system of government had sharply declined. He owns the ironic and condescending address: “You Russians.” It is not surprising that many lucrative positions in the state apparatus were taken by foreigners. The army was headed by Field Marshal Minich, the foreign department by Osterman, the Ural factories by Shemberg, the courtyard and guard by the Levenwolde brothers.
The empress herself did not overburden herself with state affairs. Instead of the abolished Supreme Privy Council, “for the better and more decent administration of all state affairs”, it was established Cabinet of Ministers of three persons: A.I. Osterman, Count G.I. Golovkin and Prince A.M. Cherkassky. Initially, the Cabinet had narrower competence than the Supreme Privy Council. Since November 1735, he received broad powers and legislative rights. The signature of three members of the Cabinet was now equal to the signature of the Empress.
The Senate under Anna Ioanovna continued to function, but its rights were not fully restored. The Cabinet of Ministers, like the Supreme Privy Council, constrained the activities of the Senate. He sent decrees to colleges and local institutions, and they, bypassing the Senate, sent reports and reports to the Cabinet.
There are some dark spots in the biography of Catherine I; information about some periods of her life is very scarce. It is known that before the adoption of Orthodoxy, Ekaterina Alekseevna’s name was Marta Samuilovna Skavronskaya.
She was born in April 1684. Marta was of Baltic origin, lost her parents early, and was raised in the family of a Protestant pastor.
At the beginning of the 18th century, Russia participated in. Sweden was the enemy of the Russian state. In 1702, the army occupied the Marienburg fortress, which is located on the territory of modern Latvia.
During the military operation, about four hundred residents of the fortress were captured. Martha was among the prisoners. There are two versions of how Martha got surrounded.
The first says that Marta became the mistress of the commander of the Russian army, Sheremetyev. Later, Menshikov, who had more influence than the field marshal, took Marta for himself.
The second version looks like this. Martha was assigned to manage the servants in Colonel Baur's house. Baur could not get enough of his manager, but Menshikov drew attention to her, and until the last decade of 1703 she worked in the house of His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Danilovich.
It was in Menshikov’s house that he paid attention to Marta. Relations with Martha developed rapidly. In 1704, the couple had a child - a boy named Peter, who soon died.
The same fate befell the second boy, Pavel. In 1705, Marta lives in the village of Preobrazhenskoye, where she is taught to read and write. In Preobrazhenskoye she struck up friendly relations with the Menshikov couple.
Martha converted to Orthodoxy either in 1708 or a year later. Different on this score historical sources indicate different dates. At baptism she took the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. She received this middle name because her godfather was Peter’s son from his first marriage, Tsarevich Alexei.
In 1708 and 1709, Ekaterina Alekseevna made Peter I happy with two daughters, Anna and Elizabeth. The second will eventually become the Russian Empress. It is worth noting that the children were considered illegitimate, because their parents were not married in church.
In 1711, Peter I took Ekaterina Alekseevna with him on the Prut campaign. During the campaign, Catherine showed herself well, tying Peter to her even more. After returning from the Prut campaign, the couple decided to get married. The wedding took place on February 19, 1712. The couple had 11 children, but all of them, except Elizabeth and Anna, died in childhood.
After his death, the question arose about who should rule the Russian Empire. The first Russian Emperor did not leave a will. Confrontation between different political forces, decided the guards mutiny. The guards placed Ekaterina Alekseevna on the throne, who went down in history as the first Russian empress.
Catherine I died on May 6th (17th), 1727.
She reigned from January 28, 1725 until May 1727. Her reign did not bring any significant changes to the life of Russian society. Under Catherine I, the Bering expedition was organized, and the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky was established. That's it, we can say, that's all important events during the reign of Catherine I.
Results of the reign of Catherine I
The reign of Catherine I and Menshikov brought a number of state and legal changes that were in accordance with the legacy of Peter the Great. The highest government authority was the Supreme Privy Council. In 1725, Catherine achieved what Peter I could not achieve: the opening of the Academy of Sciences. In foreign policy activities were aimed at creating political unions in the changed after Northern War European system balance of forces. This was not based on Catherine’s personal achievements.
The Empress tried, as far as possible, to eliminate the injustice committed against Peter's son Alexei. She graciously hosted the children Alexei, Peter and Natalya, and was attentive and attentive to them. Perhaps the reason for the proclamation of little Pyotr Alekseevich as his successor was a certain sympathy for the boy who had hitherto been neglected. It would be a human gesture. A gesture that would be equal historical monument. Maybe! But in any case, Catherine’s unique special position among the queens and empresses of the Russian state remains undeniable: she owed her rise not to the continuity of the process of emancipation of the female part of the Russian aristocracy, but to the egoism of Peter I. On the other hand, the specific demands that were placed on the Russian aristocrats of the 18th century with its educational ideas were neither clearly formulated nor clearly expressed under Catherine I. She herself had no internal motives for pursuing art or literature, and her private charity was limited to the absolutely necessary. The reason for this deficiency cannot be considered only by its low origin. It was the result of Catherine's isolated and dependent special position. In conclusion, another special distinguishing feature: Regent Sophia won power in 1682 with the help of mutinous streltsy regiments. On Catherine's accession to the throne in 1725 decisive role The participation of the guard played a role. Until now, the only rulers owe their position to the military.
In the time of Catherine, an aristocrat could no longer be prohibited from participating in open life society. In official politics, she was still powerless. If a woman wanted to stand at the head of the state, special requirements were required favorable conditions, exceptional individual ability and outright violence. In this regard, nothing changed in the “age of women” - until in the 19th century, being below the autocrat, they were involved in the implementation of specific power-political tasks.
Firstly, Catherine finished the work started by Peter, she carried out Provincial reform, according to which the country was divided into provinces (But not by territory, but by population).
Thanks to Catherine, by the end of the eighteenth century we increased our foreign trade (!) 4 times! The first banks appeared, as well as paper money (banknotes). Became freer and domestic trade, absolutely everyone was allowed to open their factories without special permission from the government. Under her, the persecution of Old Believers was stopped, Catholic and Protestant churches and mosques were built.
The war with Turkey ended in 1791. In 1792, the Peace of Iasi was signed, which consolidated Russian influence in Bessarabia and Transcaucasia, as well as the annexation of Crimea. In 1793 and 1795, the second and third partitions of Poland took place, finally ending Polish statehood.
In general, so to speak, Catherine completely prepared us for entering the new, 19th century!
Reign of Paul 1
After death Catherine II her son Paul I ascended the throne. During her lifetime, Catherine actually removed Paul from power; their relationship was very cool. In 1794, she tried to deprive him of the right to inherit the throne and transfer power to her grandson. However, the empress could not carry out her intention.
Having become emperor, Paul changed the order that existed at Catherine's court. His policies in all areas were extremely inconsistent. He restored the abolished boards, changed the administrative division of Russia, reducing the number of provinces, and returned to the previous forms of government of the provinces of Russia. Paul deprived the nobility of their privileges, limited the effect of letters of grant, and constrained local self-government. In 1797, he established a standard for peasant labor (three days of corvée per week), this was the first limitation of landowner power. However, during the 4 years of his reign, he distributed more than 600 thousand peasants belonging to the state to the landowners.
In all his activities, Paul I allowed extremes and pursued inappropriate policies. He banned the words “club”, “council”, “fatherland”, “citizen”. Banned the waltz and certain items of clothing. He granted amnesty to political prisoners arrested under Catherine II, but at the same time continued to fight against revolutionary manifestations in society. In 1797-1799 he established the most severe censorship, banning 639 publications. On July 5, 1800, many printing houses were sealed for censorship inspection. Paul interfered in religious affairs, trying to introduce elements of Catholicism into Orthodoxy.
The emperor repealed the law prohibiting the purchase of peasants to work in enterprises. Without any justification, contrary to the meaning, he restored the collegial system, abolished by Catherine II.
Among the innovations introduced by the emperor, the creation of the Medical-Surgical Academy, the Russian-American Company, and a school for military orphans stands out positively.
The Emperor attached great importance to regulations in military relations. The drill in the army acquired unprecedented proportions, which caused discontent in the guard and among senior officers.
In 1798, an anti-French coalition was created, which included England, Austria, Türkiye and Russia. The Black Sea squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakov was sent to the Mediterranean Sea. The Russian fleet liberated the Ionian Islands and Southern Italy from French occupation. In February 1799 there was major battle for the island of Corfu, where a three-thousand-strong French garrison was defeated. Russian troops entered Naples and Rome.
In 1799, Russia began the land phase of the war. At the insistence of the allies, the command of the troops was entrusted to A.V. Suvorov. In a month and a half of fighting, Russian troops managed to oust the French from Northern Italy. Fearing the growth of Russian influence in Italy, Austria achieved the transfer of Suvorov’s troops to Switzerland. On August 31, 1799, to assist the troops of General A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov, Suvorov made a heroic transition from Northern Italy through the Alps to Switzerland. Russian troops defeated the enemy in the battles of St. Gotthard and Devil's Bridge. But help was late, and Rimsky-Korsakov’s troops were defeated.
In 1800, Paul I made a sharp turn in foreign policy. He ceases hostilities, recalls troops to Russia and breaks the alliance with England and Austria. Having made peace with France, Paul I entered into an alliance with Prussia against Austria and with Prussia, Switzerland and Denmark against England. The worsening relations with England caused discontent among the nobility, since England was Russia’s main partner in trade and the purchase of grain.
But the palace coup on the night of March 11-12, 1801 interrupted plans for war against England. Paul I was killed as a result of this coup, organized by senior guards officers who did not forgive him for the oppression and the will taken away from them.
38) Alexander 1 - son of the emperor Paul I and Princess Maria Feodorovna, grandson Catherine 2. Born on December 23, 1777. From early childhood, he began to live with his grandmother, who wanted to raise him to be a good sovereign. After Catherine's death, Paul ascended the throne. Future Emperor had many positive traits character. Alexander was dissatisfied with his father's rule and conspired against Paul. On March 11, 1801, the tsar was killed (despite the protest of his son) and Alexander began to rule. Upon ascending the throne, Alexander 1 promised to follow the political course of Catherine 2.
Stage 1 of transformation. The beginning of the reign of Alexander 1 was marked by reforms; he wanted to change political system Russia, create a constitution that guarantees rights and freedom to everyone. But Alexander had many opponents. On April 5, 1801, the Permanent Council was created, whose members could challenge the tsar’s decrees. Alexander wanted to free the peasants, but many opposed this. However, on February 20, 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued. This is how the category of free peasants appeared in Russia for the first time.
Alexander also carried out an education reform, the essence of which was to create state system education, the head of which was the Ministry of Public Education. In addition, administrative reform was carried out (reform of the highest government bodies) - 8 ministries were established: foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military ground forces, naval forces, justice, commerce and public education. The new governing bodies had sole power. Each separate department was controlled by a minister, each minister was subordinate to the Senate.
Stage 2 of reforms. Alexander introduces M.M. into his circle. Speransky, who entrusts the development of a new government reform. According to Speransky's project, it is necessary to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia, in which the power of the sovereign would be limited to a bicameral parliamentary body. The implementation of this plan began in 1809. By the summer of 1811, the transformation of the ministries was completed. But due to foreign policy In Russia (tensed relations with France), Speransky’s reforms were perceived as anti-state and in March 1812 he was dismissed.
The threat from France was looming. On June 12, 1812, the Patriotic War began. After the expulsion of Napoleon's troops, the authority of Alexander 1 increased.
Post-war reforms. In 1817-18 People close to the emperor were engaged in the gradual elimination of serfdom. By the end of 1820, the draft “State Charter of the Russian Empire” was prepared and approved by Alexander, but it was not possible to introduce it.
Feature domestic policy Alexander 1 introduced a police regime and created military settlements, which later became known as “Arakcheevshchina.” Such measures caused discontent among the broad masses of the population. In 1817, the “Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education” was created, headed by A.N. Golitsyn. In 1822, Emperor Alexander 1 banned in Russia secret societies, including Freemasonry.
The death of Alexander 1 occurred from typhoid fever on December 1, 1825 in Taganrog. During the years of his reign, Alexander 1 did a lot for the country: Russia defeated French army, a huge amount of work was done to abolish serfdom, and a reform of the highest authorities was carried out.
40)
The socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century had the following features. The first of them is the unevenness of this development in different regions of the country due to the diversity of their natural, ethnic and local traditions. The second was that in Russia the role of the state was great in economic life countries. This role was expressed not only in numerous measures of regulation, guardianship, control and encouragement of industry and trade, but also customs policy, which protected domestic entrepreneurs by providing them with various benefits and subsidies. It was also expressed in the development of the state economy. The entire credit system was exclusively state-owned. The third feature was the poor development private property, first of all, land ownership, and as a consequence of this - poor development"third estate". In Russia it was represented by a narrow layer of the urban bourgeoisie and artisans, partly by people of mental labor, while they were squeezed into the rigid framework of feudal class structures.
Although new socio-economic processes undermined the feudal-serf system, it continued to remain dominant until the fall of serfdom. Serfdom in Russia, due to historical conditions, lasted longer than anywhere else in the civilized world, and took on the most cruel and crude forms - in practice it was not much different from slavery. Moreover, serfdom for a long time could adapt to new phenomena in the country's economy and even use them to strengthen the material positions of the nobility and the absolutist state. Contradictory processes took place in the feudal economy of Russia: on the one hand, there was a process of decomposition, and before the reform of 1861, a crisis of its foundations; on the other hand, the spread of feudal relations to the colonized outskirts continued through the imposition of noble land ownership in them. The autocracy also played a huge role in maintaining serfdom, preserving the feudal structure of society. Ultimately, all this significantly slowed down the pace economic development countries.
In foreign policy, Nicholas I followed the line of Alexander I.
The main idea is the need to fight the “revolutionary infection”. This actually excluded France after the revolution of 1830 from the circle of possible allies of Russia. Forced to constantly deal with the decision eastern problems, Nicholas I hesitated between the policy of “status quo” - maintaining integrity Ottoman Empire- and the policy of dividing the inheritance of Turkey together with others European states
In relation to the annexed and conquered peoples, he pursued a restrained, differentiated policy, taking into account their national, religious and cultural characteristics.
41)
The main reasons for the abolition of serfdom in Russia were the following:
— firstly, serfdom hampered the development of industry, and capital accumulation was slow. Russia could become a secondary state;
- secondly, peasant farms went bankrupt, as landowners increased corvee labor in the Black Earth Region, and quit-rent peasants went to work in factories, the basis of the serf-owning economy, based on the forced, extremely ineffective labor of serfs, was undermined;
- thirdly, the crisis of serfdom was one of the main reasons for the country’s defeat in Crimean War, which showed the military-technical backwardness of Russia. The financial system was undermined; the peasants went bankrupt due to recruitment and increased duties. A mass flight of peasants from the landowners began;
- fourthly, the increase in the number of peasant unrest (in 1860 there were 126 peasant uprisings) created a real threat of the transformation of scattered uprisings into a new “Pugachevism”;
- fifthly, the ruling circles realized that serfdom— a “powder keg” under the state. From liberal landowners, scientists, even relatives of the tsar, in particular the younger brother of Grand Duke Constantine, the government began to receive proposals and projects for reforming land relations. Alexander II, speaking in 1856 to representatives of the Moscow nobility, said: “If we do not free the peasants from above, then they will free themselves from below”;
— sixthly, serfdom, as a form of slavery, was condemned by all layers of Russian society.
The first years of the reign of Alexander II were called the “first Russian thaw.” An amnesty was declared for political prisoners: Decembrists, participants in the Polish uprising, Petrashevites, arrears on peasant taxes were written off, military settlements were liquidated, censorship was weakened, and free travel abroad was allowed.
But Alexander II and his ministers did not have a well-thought-out reform plan. But notes from various public figures, containing projects of peasant reform. The “Note on the Liberation of Peasants” by historian K. D. Kavelin (1856) caused a particular public outcry. He believed that property rights should not be violated; when carrying out the reform, it was necessary to take into account the interests of both peasants and landowners: free the peasants with the land and reward the landowners. The abolition of serfdom, in his opinion, will open the way to other reforms: judicial, military, the elimination of censorship, etc. The serf owners greeted Kavelin’s “Note” extremely negatively, he was even fired from the university. But his “Note” largely determined the main provisions of the peasant reform.
The collapse of the serf system in 1861 dictated the need for further reforms.
In 1864, a zemstvo reform was carried out, during which a system of local government bodies was created in counties and provinces. District zemstvo assemblies were elected once every three years by the population of the district, provincial ones were formed from representatives nominated at district assemblies. At the same time, elections to district zemstvos were organized in such a way as to provide an advantage to noble landowners. The zemstvos were in charge of the local economy, public education, medicine, and statistics. Zemstvo members had no right to raise any problems of a national nature for discussion.
Flaws zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of zemstvo bodies (lack of higher central authority), artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the landed nobility, limited scope of activity. What was important was the very fact that a system of self-government appeared in Russia, radically different from the dominant bureaucratic system. However, the government's policy towards the zemstvo in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s. was aimed precisely at depriving him of all independence. Governors received the right to refuse confirmation to office of any person elected by the zemstvo; Zemstvo doctors, teachers, and statisticians were expelled from the zemstvo at the slightest provocation. The central local authorities purposefully suppressed any attempt by the zemstvos to act independently.
Also in 1864, judicial reform was carried out. The old class courts were abolished. Instead, a world court and a crown court were created. A magistrate's court with a simplified procedure was introduced in the counties to deal with cases of minor offenses. More serious cases were dealt with in the crown court, which had two instances: the district court and the trial chamber. In case of violation of the legal order of judicial proceedings, the decisions of these bodies could be appealed to the Senate.
From the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, the new ones differed primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and press. In addition, the basis of the judicial procedure was an adversarial process, during which the prosecution - the prosecutor - and the defendant's defense - the lawyer - had to find out all the circumstances of the case - by questioning witnesses, analyzing physical evidence etc. The decision on the case was made by jurors selected by special lists from people of different classes. Finally, the investigators who prepared the case for trial and the judges who led the entire judicial procedure, although appointed by the government, were irremovable. But as soon as the new courts demonstrated their best sides, the authorities immediately began to subordinate them to the dominant bureaucratic system. Particularly characteristic were the innovations concerning political cases: investigations in these cases began to be conducted not by investigators, but by gendarmes; legal proceedings were carried out not by jury trials, but by military courts.
In 1860 - first half of the 1870s. A series of military reforms were carried out in Russia, the central of which was the introduction in 1874 of universal military service, replacing the pre-reform conscription. Military conscription extended to all male population who have reached the age of 20, without distinction of class. In peacetime, no more than 25-30% of the total was taken into active service. total number conscripts by lot. At the same time, the system of military control was streamlined: Russia was divided into 15 military districts, directly subordinate to the Minister of War. Instead of closed military buildings, military gymnasiums were established, similar in curriculum to high school and opening the way to any higher educational institution. Those who wanted to continue military education, entered specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering.
On March 1, 1881, in St. Petersburg, not far from Nevsky Prospect, on the embankment of the Catherine Canal, Emperor Alexander II was killed by a terrorist bomb. The first bomb thrown by Nikolai Rysakov exploded near the carriage: several Cossack escorts were killed, the accompanying guards and several bystanders were wounded.
Nikolay Rysakov
Alexander II got out of the stopped carriage. He calmly examined the scene of the explosion, then approached the captured Rysakov. After listening to the first report on the incident, the emperor, obeying the entreaties of the guards, headed back to the carriage. At that moment, a young man who had been standing until then indifferently stepped forward and, approaching the king, threw a bomb at his feet.
Results of the reign of Catherine II
Assessing the reign of Catherine II, first of all it should be said that both the domestic and foreign policies of Russia as a whole met the needs of society.
This is what ensured the internal political stability of Catherine’s reign.
The empress's consistent policy, without sharp fluctuations, appealed more to the nobility and urban fortunes. The class courts introduced by her, as well as local government bodies, were placed under the control of the nobility. Ekaterina accomplished administrative reform, which strengthened the principles of legality in management structures. Public education became qualitatively different under Catherine II: to end of the XVIII century, there were 193 public schools in the country, in which about 14 thousand people studied. This marked the beginning of the creation of a comprehensive school system. Total k early XIX V. There were about 500 different secular characters in the country educational institutions with 45-48 thousand students and 66 theological seminaries and schools with more than 20 thousand seminarians.
The reign of Catherine II was marked by impressive results in the foreign policy sphere. In all her practical actions, the empress proceeded from the conviction that “the true greatness of the empire lies in being great and powerful not only in one place, but in all places, showing strength, activity and order everywhere.” This directly related to the country’s foreign policy course pursued by her. Here Catherine was very “inflexible”: “She will conduct her affairs no other way than according to her own understanding” and no one “in the world will force her to act otherwise than as she does.” The fruits of her firm and consistently pursued expansionist policy of “protecting” the national interests of the Russian Empire were such that in her time, as Count A. A. Bezborodko said, not without pride, not a single cannon in Europe could fire without Russia’s consent.
During the years of Catherine's reign, the borders of the empire in the west and south as a result of the divisions of Poland and the annexation of Crimea expanded significantly. The country's population increased significantly - from 23.2 million (according to the third revision in 1763) to 37.4 million (according to the fifth in 1796). About 7 million people lived on the lands conquered from Turkey and Poland alone. Russia in the 60s became the most populated country in Europe: it accounted for up to 20% of the population of the entire European continent. The population density also increased slightly - from 1.6 people per 1 km2 in 1762 to 2.3 in 1796 (the population density of Siberia decreased, where there were 0.1 people per 1 km2 in the second half of the 18th century) .
Regarding ethnic composition population of Russia, then as a result of territorial expansion it has become even more variegated. At the same time, in a multinational empire, the size of the state-forming nation was steadily decreasing. If in 1762 Russians made up just over 60%, then in 1795 they were already less than 50%. The second largest people were Ukrainians - about 15 and 20%, respectively. The empire, according to demographer W. I. Brook, included up to 200 large and small nations, differing in language, religion, way of life and culture.
V. O. Klyuchevsky, characterizing general condition country at the end of the reign of Catherine II, wrote: “The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, in 1757 consisting of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 counted 67 battleships and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, i.e. has more than quadrupled, success foreign trade Baltic - in increasing imports and exports from 9 million to 44 million rubles, Black Sea Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal circulation was indicated by the issue of coins worth 148 million rubles in the 34 years of his reign, while in the previous 62 years only 97 million were issued.” Under Catherine II, for the first time (1769), Russian paper money - banknotes - appeared, which was required to cover the costs of the war with Turkey. Truth, weight financial success government during this period decreased due to the growing issue of banknotes, one ruble of which in 1796 was equal to 68 kopecks. silver, and also due to the fact that a third of the budget revenue was the so-called “drinking tax” - during the reign of Catherine, this tax was increased almost 6 times. But still, it was not possible to make the budget deficit-free, and the amount left by it government debts exceeded 200 million rubles, which was equal to the income of the last three and a half years of the reign.
The territories acquired in the Northern Black Sea and Azov regions - virgin fertile steppes, stimulated by the interests of the nobility, were quickly developed, and by the end of the century about one million people were cultivating fertile arable land, engaged in crafts and trade in the cities of Nikolaev, Kherson, Ekaterinoslav, Mariupol, Sevastopol and others, and also served Russian merchant ships on the Black Sea. All this, first of all, must be credited to G. A. Potemkin, an outstanding statesman.
In the 18th century Russia has retained its status as an agricultural country. In 1796, townspeople numbered 2,290 thousand people, or 6.3% of the total population. Moreover, since 1730, there has been an increase in the absolute size of the urban population with a decrease in its share in general composition population. In 1780 there were 543 cities in the country, of which 391 were small towns (with a population of 5 thousand people), 146 medium towns (from 5 to 25 thousand people), 6 large towns (over 25 thousand people). The main population of the country was rural, Most of it were landowner peasants.
Due to the lack of specific quantitative indicators, it is difficult to judge the real results of agricultural development. We can only state that the hopes placed on improving the methods of agriculture and cattle breeding through the promotion of the achievements of agronomic science from the pages of the “Proceedings” of the Free Economic Society were not justified.
As L.V. Milov shows, on vast spaces Russian Non-Black Earth Region, which had a decisive influence on the development of not only the economy, but also the entire Russian society and states agriculture in the second half of the 18th century. was unprofitable, many districts had enough grain for only 6-8 months a year. Hence the development of various types of peasant crafts and the unprecedented growth of otkhodnichestvo: at the end of the century, almost every third adult man in the village, after finishing agricultural work, went to work.
In turn, the government, understanding the need to ensure the livelihoods of the huge mass of the peasant population, through legislation encouraged its involvement in commercial and industrial activities.
The Catherine era left a noticeable mark on the industrial development of Russia. Thus, over four decades (1760-1800), pig iron smelting increased from 3,663 thousand poods to 9,908 thousand, or 2.7 times. Russia has taken first place in the world in this indicator. Over the same period, the number of domains increased from 62 to 111. The growth of metallurgical production was caused by increased demand for iron on the world market.
Foreign demand for high-quality Russian linen and canvas led to an increase in the number of sailing and linen manufactories and especially enterprises in the cotton industry: if in the late 60s. there were 85 and 7 of them, respectively, then in 1799 there were already 318 and 249. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663).
Regarding labor, we note that in metallurgy almost exclusively forced labor was used. His share was also high in the cloth production that worked for the treasury, where mostly Manufactories were owned by nobles. Wage labor dominated in the silk and cotton industry, as well as in the sailing, linen and cloth merchant enterprises founded after 1762.
The growth of the country's economic development is also reflected by the increased export of goods. If in 1760 total amount exports amounted to 13,886 thousand rubles, then in 1790 - 39,643 thousand. Industrial products alone during the same years were exported for 2,183 and 5,708 thousand rubles. respectively. The opening of permanent trade through the Russian ports of the Black Sea promised brilliant prospects. Durum wheat has become one of the main export goods here.
The empress’s services to the development of Russia’s economy and education can hardly be overestimated. She modestly assessed her role in the quest to achieve the “true good”: “No matter what I do for Russia, it will only be a drop in the bucket.”1 But here is the opinion of her contemporary, the memoirist A.
I. Ribopiera: Catherine “as a woman and as a monarch... is quite worthy of surprise.” The glory of her wonderful reign could not be eclipsed by any of the newest monarchs.
In their memoirs, all contemporaries who objectively assessed Catherine unanimously admired her intelligence, charm and talents.
Many wrote that she wonderfully combined qualities rarely found in one person. S. M. Solovyov did not at all absolutize the personal qualities of the empress when he gave a generalized description: “... the extraordinary liveliness of her happy nature, sensitivity to all issues, royal sociability, desire to study each person, to exhaust his mental content, his relationship to well-known issue, communication with living people, and not with papers, not with official reports only - these precious qualities of Catherine supported her activities, did not allow her to lose heart for a minute, and this opportunity to descend morally from the height of the position she occupied and strengthened her power; difficulties always found Catherine in her place, in a royal position and worthy of this position, so the difficulties were overcome.” Depth and insight of thought, extraordinary diligence, constant desire for self-improvement - all these qualities, so important for a politician and statesman, were inherent in Catherine II.”
Contemporaries of Catherine's century emphasize that the empress's aspirations and actions were based on concern for the good of the state, the path to which, in her view, lay through the triumph of reasonable laws, enlightenment of society, instilling good morals and obedience to the law. Catherine saw the main means and reliable guarantee of the success of reform initiatives in the unlimited autocratic power of the monarch, who always, everywhere and in everything directed society on the right path.
The topic of favoritism deserves special discussion. Here we just note that favoritism in Russia was not much different from its counterparts in other countries with autocratic regimes. But under Catherine there was also one significant feature: she always parted with all the favorites favored by the empress on good terms, even if they did not live up to her expectations in some way or even betrayed her.
In general, the entire life and activity of Catherine II was subordinated to the remarkable formula: “Consistency in actions.” Empress and person, Catherine II firmly followed the rules once adopted. Home distinctive feature Her 34-year reign was stable, although, as V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote, of these, 17 years of struggle “external and internal” accounted for “17 years of rest.”
Two hundred s extra years ago the reign of the empress, who was called “The Great” during her lifetime, ended. Thanks to its reasonable policies, Russia has firmly taken its place as the leading power in the world.
Mysteries of history
Empress Catherine II
Empress Catherine II the Great (1729-1796) reign Russian Empire in 1762-1796. She ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup. With the support of the guards, she overthrew her unloved and unpopular husband Peter III in the country and marked the beginning of the Catherine era, which is also called the “golden age” of the empire.
Portrait of Empress Catherine II
Artist A. Roslin
Before accession to the throne
The All-Russian autocrat belonged to the noble German princely family of Askania, known since the 11th century. She was born on April 21, 1729 in the German city of Stettin, in the family of the Prince of Anhalt-Dornburg. At that time he was the commandant of Stettin Castle, and soon received the rank of lieutenant general. Mother Johanna Elisabeth belonged to the German Oldenburg ducal dynasty. Full name the baby born sounded like Frederick Augustus' Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst.
The family did not have much money, so Sofia Frederica Augusta received her education at home. The girl was taught theology, music, dancing, history, geography, and was also taught French, English and Italian.
The future empress grew up as a playful girl. She spent a lot of time on the city streets, playing with the boys. She was even called "the boy in a skirt." The mother lovingly called her poor daughter "Fricken".
In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her nephew and heir to the throne Peter, chose Fricken. In 1744, an unmarried girl came with her mother to Russia. She was baptized on June 28, 1744 and named Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the very next day she was engaged to Peter.
From the first months of her life in Russia, Catherine read a lot and developed her mind. She began to diligently learn the Russian language, studied local traditions, the history of the country and Orthodoxy. They selected good teachers for her, who gave their student deep and fundamental knowledge.
The marriage to the heir to the throne took place on August 21, 1745. The bride was 16 years old at that time, and the groom was 17. They were each other’s second cousins. Their family life It was not a success from the first days. There were no love feelings between the newlyweds, and Catherine very quickly moved away from her husband. In 1754 she gave birth to a son, Paul, and this was the end of marital responsibilities future empress are over.
At the same time, the young woman did not waste time. She had intelligence, tact, cunning and gradually established useful connections for herself in the high society of St. Petersburg and in the guard. Soon she began to harbor ambitious plans to come to power and take the throne herself. This was greatly facilitated by the fact that the spouse was poorly suited for government activities.
In 1757, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna. To this the husband remarked: “God knows what it is! I already forgot when last time I slept with her, and she kept giving birth and giving birth." However, he recognized the girl as his daughter, but the baby died 2 years later. In 1762, the future All-Russian autocrat gave birth to illegitimate son Alexei from his connection with Grigory Grigorievich Orlov.
Portrait of young Ekaterina Alekseevna
On December 25, 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter ascended the Russian throne III Fedorovich. After this, relations between the spouses almost completely ceased. The emperor began to live openly with his favorite Vorontsova, and his wife settled at the opposite end of the Winter Palace. Everything was heading towards divorce, and in Russia this meant a monastery for a divorced woman.
Peter III ruled for only six months and during this time managed to turn against himself most of high society. As for Catherine, on the contrary, she became more and more popular both among the nobility and among the guards. It all ended with a palace coup on June 28, 1762.
On this ill-fated date, the emperor and his court were in Peterhof. Early in the morning, the wife secretly left for St. Petersburg, where the guards, who had been alerted, were already waiting for her. They greeted the sovereign's wife as an empress and swore allegiance to her. On the same day, Peter III was arrested and resignedly signed the abdication of the throne. All power passed to his wife, Empress Catherine II.
Great Imperial Crown
Years of reign (1762-1796)
It should immediately be noted that, thanks to her extraordinary abilities, the woman who ascended the Russian throne became an outstanding statesman. She was well educated, prudent and able to study. For many years she corresponded with Voltaire and others prominent figures era of Enlightenment.
Communication with philosophers turned out to be extremely important for the empress. Many progressive ideas were included in her reform program and turned into laws. It was under this empress that such a concept as rights of estates. The Senate was significantly transformed, the system was changed local government and the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished.
The empire was divided into provinces. They remained unchanged until the 1917 revolution. Riga and Revel provinces appeared in the Baltic states. Siberia was divided into Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Kolyvan provinces.
The secularization of church lands was carried out. They went to the state, and almost a million monastic peasants gained freedom. Nobles and townspeople received Granted certificates who defended their rights. But at the same time, Empress Catherine II remained a full-fledged autocrat and had unlimited state power.
Foreign policy
The reign of Catherine II the Great was a time of significant expansion of the Russian Empire in the southern and western directions. This was facilitated not only by the intelligent and strong-willed empress, but also by the enormous capabilities of the state. It had good army led by such brilliant commanders like Rumyantsev and Suvorov, as well as flexible diplomacy, which skillfully used military victories to increase the prestige of the empire.
After the first Turkish War (1668-1674), the lands at the mouth of the Don, Dnieper, Kerch Strait. In 1783, Crimea, Kuban region and Balta were annexed. Second Turkish War(1787-1792) ended with the annexation of coastal lands between the Dniester and Bug. Thus, the Russian Empire reached the Black Sea.
In the west, under the first Polish partition, Russia received part of Belarus in 1773. According to the second Polish partition in 1793, the empire included such regions as Volyn, Minsk and Podolsk. As a result of the third partition of 1795-1797, the Vilna, Grodno and Kovno Lithuanian provinces, the entire upper reaches of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn were acquired.
The Duchy of Courland was also annexed.
Russo-Turkish War
Activities within the empire
In 1774, Grigory Potemkin became the favorite of Empress Catherine II. This man had very good administrative and military abilities. In the Black Sea region, conquered from the Tatars and Turks, he launched a gigantic construction project. Cities such as Kherson, Odessa, Sevastopol, Nikolaev were built in the bare steppe.
Tens of thousands of peasants built factories, fortresses, canals, shipyards, and planted forests. These new possessions were called Novorossiya. Streams of Russian, Ukrainian and German colonists rushed into it. They began to develop the rich black soil southern steppes. The Black Sea Fleet was also built. All these glorious deeds were carried out under the leadership of Potemkin.
But not all was well in the empire. In 1773-1775 there was peasant revolt under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the Orenburg province, the Urals, Bashkiria, the regions of the Middle and Lower Volga region and partially Western Siberia. Pugachev allegedly declared himself not dead, but alive and healthy emperor Peter III. Bashkirs, Kazakhs, workers from Ural factories, Tatars, serfs.
This whole mass of people fought for a better life. However, hundreds of noble families were killed in the process. Moreover, the rebels spared neither children, nor old people, nor women. This rebellion had a distinctly social connotation, with the oppressed class rebelling against the exploiting class rather than against local administrators.
At first, the rebels won one victory after another. They captured Kazan, Saransk, Penza. There was talk that the rebels were going to march on Moscow. But they turned south and captured cities such as Petrovsk and Saratov. The rioters were greeted everywhere by the ringing of bells, and the priests served prayer services. However, the assault on Tsaritsyn failed, and on August 25, 1774, a battle took place at the Solenikova gang. In it, the rebels suffered a crushing defeat. 2 thousand rebels were killed, and 6 thousand were taken prisoner. Pugachev himself with his closest associates fled across the Volga.
Among the Cossacks who fled with the impostor were traitors. Near the river Bolshoi Uzen On September 8, they captured Pugachev and took him to Yaitsky town. He was taken there on September 15 and underwent the first interrogations. Then the main rebel was transported to Simbirsk. They transported him in a cage on a 2-wheeled cart, shackled. Pugachev was executed on January 10, 1775 on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow in front of a huge crowd of people.
Culture and education
Under Empress Catherine II, classicism replaced Baroque in architecture. In St. Petersburg and other cities, majestic buildings began to be erected according to the designs of such architects as Jean-Baptiste Vallin-Delamot, Antonio Rinaldi, Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov and others. The sculptor Fyodor Shubin created sculptural portraits of his contemporaries, and Etienne Falconet created an equestrian statue of Peter the Great ( Bronze Horseman, however, you should know that the monument is made of bronze).
Many state and serf theaters were founded. Their number reached 170. The best European plays and operas were staged on the stages of these cultural centers. It should be noted that the plays were also composed by Empress Catherine II herself.
In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens for girls and the Novodevichy Institute were founded. Schools at the provincial and district levels began to open throughout the country. In 1781, a Commercial School for merchants opened in St. Petersburg.
Document signed by Catherine II
Last years of reign
Recent years Catherine II's reign was characterized by her weakening creativity and stagnation in public life. The Great War, which began in 1789, played a significant role in this. French Revolution. She frightened the empress, and she began to show conservatism and intolerance to other people’s opinions, which was previously unusual for her.
The aging All-Russian autocrat began to become increasingly interested in young favorites. The last in this row was Platon Zubov. He was a young, handsome, but absolutely empty and vain dandy. He captured the heart of a mature lady who did not want to come to terms with her old age.
In general, it should be noted that under Catherine, rather loose morals reigned in the royal circle. IN Europe XVIII For centuries, this was typical for kings, but not for reigning queens. The Austrian Empress Maria Theresa and her daughter Marie Antoinette sharply criticized the debauchery that reigned at the court of the Russian Empress. She was compared to a loving French king Louis XV. He, by the way, died after contracting an infectious disease from one of his many mistresses.
Empress Catherine II died on November 6, 1796 Winter Palace St. Petersburg at the age of 67, having been in power for 34 years. The cause of death was stroke. Emperor Paul I ascended the Russian throne.
Alexey Starikov
Catherine I Romanova (1684-1727) - empress who ruled the Russian Empire after the death of Peter I in 1725-1727. Since 1721, she was the wife of the reigning emperor. In 1723 she was crowned empress in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. In the entire history of the Russian state, this was the second coronation of the sovereign’s wife. The first took place in 1606, and the crown was placed on the head of Marina Mnishek, the wife of False Dmitry I.
Portrait of Catherine
(artist Jean-Marc Nattier, 1717)
Origin of Catherine
There is much that is unclear about the origins of the reigning person. Her name was Marta Samuilovna Skavronskaya (married Kruse). It is believed that she was born into a peasant family. By nationality she was either Latvian, Lithuanian, or Estonian. At the age of 6 months she was left an orphan, as her parents died of the plague. She was brought up in the house of the Lutheran priest Ernst Gluck. Performed the duties of a maid.
At the age of 17, the girl married the Swedish dragoon Johann Kruse. She lived with her husband in Marienburg. 2 days after the wedding, the husband left for war with active army, and the wife never saw her betrothed again.
At the end of August 1702, the Marienburg fortress was taken by Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal Sheremetyev. The city was plundered and many residents were arrested. Marta was among those arrested. Soon Sheremetyev noticed her and made her his mistress. In the summer of 1703, the sovereign’s favorite, His Serene Highness Prince A. Menshikov, saw her. He took the woman to himself and also made her his mistress.
In the fall of 1703, Peter I saw Martha. He took her from his favorite and made her his mistress. Apparently there was something special about this young woman, since high-ranking men were so drawn to her.
The Tsar began to call her Katerina. In 1704, she gave birth to her lover's first child, who was named Peter. In total, she gave birth to 8 children: 6 girls and 2 boys. Of these, 6 died in childhood. Daughter Anna died at the age of 20, but managed to give birth to a son, who later became Emperor Peter III. Daughter Elizabeth became the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna.
In 1707, Katerina was baptized and converted to Orthodoxy. She changed her name, and they began to call her Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova. She received her middle name from her godfather, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, and the tsar came up with her last name.
In 1710, a solemn parade took place in Moscow on the occasion of the victory in the Battle of Poltava. At this parade, Swedish prisoners marched in front of the Muscovites. Among them was Martha's husband Johann Kruse. He saw his legal wife near the Russian Tsar and began to tell everyone about it. He was immediately exiled to a remote Siberian village, where Kruse died in 1721.
In February 1712, Peter and Catherine got married. After this, they began to be considered legal husband and wife. They lived well, since the wife knew how to adapt to the hot-tempered and uncontrollable character of the sovereign. But in 1724 there was an embarrassment. The empress was suspected of treason. Chamberlain Mons became her lover. She was executed, however, they found another reason for this.
The emperor then distanced himself from his wife. He reconciled with his wife only when he was dying. The forgiven wife sat all the time near the bed of the dying sovereign, and he died, practically, in her arms.
Reign of Catherine I Romanova (1725-1727)
The Emperor died without naming his successor. Two groups immediately formed. One advocated for the enthronement of the grandson of the late sovereign Peter Alekseevich - the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei, and the other group rallied around Catherine.
The Empress was supported by A. Menshikov, other associates of Peter and the guard. It was the guard regiments that came to the Senate, where the fate of the succession to the throne was decided. To noble boyars there was nothing left to do but recognize the power of the wife of the late emperor over himself.
So, with the support of the guards bayonets, behind which stood A. Menshikov, Catherine I Romanova ascended to the Russian throne. But she reigned formally. He had real power Supreme Privy Council led by Field Marshal A Menshikov. It began to function in February 1726.
In addition to the field marshal, the council included Counts Apraksin, Golovkin, Tolstoy, Prince Golitsyn, and Baron Osterman. Of all the members, only Golitsyn belonged to the high-born nobles. This body of power also included the Empress's son-in-law, Duke of Holstein Karl-Friedrich.
Portrait of A. Menshikov (unknown artist)
In this state of affairs, the role of the Senate fell. All important matters were decided in Supreme Council, and the empress only signed the papers. She devoted almost all her time to balls, festivals, and fireworks, which followed in an uninterrupted series at her court.
Meanwhile, in the country, due to the crop failure, bread prices jumped. Discontent began to brew among people. The activities of the new rulers were limited only to minor issues. At the same time, embezzlement, corruption, abuse, and arbitrariness flourished. None serious steps no efforts were made to improve the situation in the country.
The only positive thing they did was open the Academy of Sciences and organize the expedition of V. Bering. In foreign policy, the Treaty of Vienna Union was concluded with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1726. He laid the foundation for the Russian-Austrian military-political alliance.
Death of the Empress
The reign of Catherine I Romanova lasted only 2 years. The woman had poor health, and her wild life weakened it even more. At the beginning of April 1727, the empress became seriously ill. She began to suffer from cough and fever. The woman grew weaker every day and died on May 6, 1727 at the age of 43. It is assumed that she died from abscess pneumonia.
According to legend, a few days before her death, the empress had a dream that she seemed to be flying away to a cloud on which Peter was standing. And on earth, a hostile crowd surrounds her daughters Anna and Elizabeth. But their mother can no longer help them.
Thus ended the reign of another representative of the Romanov dynasty. But this ruler did not show herself in any way. She only managed to achieve enormous personal success, but it did not bring any benefit to society.
Alexey Starikov
