What is positional trading. b) Positional alternations of consonants

Correct Understanding positional trading will allow you to add a powerful strategy to your arsenal for working on any financial markets.

Contents of the article:

Before you start trading, you should understand the basic key concepts: What is position trading, how does it differ from swing trading and what is its strategy.

What is position trading in simple words and with examples

Position trading– this is working on a trend on a long-term basis, on charts covering large time scales. To implement this, fundamental and technical analysis is often used. Position trading is suitable for all types of markets: stocks, commodities, Forex.

Here's how Wikipedia described position trading:

Position trader (short-term) - makes transactions with a duration of several days, closes all positions before periods of decreased liquidity (holidays, summer holidays etc.)

Positional trading has existed since the advent of the first speculators, when charts with short time intervals were not available to people, and quotes were updated only a few times a day manually on the board in brokerage offices. In such conditions, it was more profitable to trade in the long term and hold the position.

Today, positional strategy is used in the stock market and Forex, while positional traders are often identified with investors, but this is not entirely true. It is necessary to understand the difference between this style and others:

Thus, position trading is an independent style, significantly different from others. Market participants can use this approach to hold short- and long-term positions. Its advantages:

1. Does not take into account small price changes, that is, does not require constant monitoring of the situation;
2. There is no need to be near the computer all the time. The most important thing in positional strategy is deep and thorough analysis, on the basis of which further decisions are made;
3. An open position simply needs to be monitored if there is a situation that could change the position or price.

Position trading strategy on the real market

Position trading strategy is an analysis of daily, weekly and monthly timeframes; holding an open position for at least several days to a month.

Position trading in simple words– this is a meaningful and balanced entry into a transaction, based on maintaining a position in a trend.

Each strategy implies the presence of certain basic rules, positional trading is characterized by the following:

• The signal to enter a position is the beginning of a trend on a large timeframe (with a period of 1 day or 1 week);
• Exit from a transaction is carried out only if there are sufficient grounds for the end of the trend.

The simplest idea and interpretation of such a strategy is the phrase “ buy and hold”, often applicable to long-term investors in blue chip stocks.

Let's look at a small example of positional trading in shares of the retail chain Magnit.

As you can see, the price has been in a strong uptrend for several years, which would be a good opportunity to hold the position for a long time. The technical signal for entering a position is the exit from consolidation at the end of 2012. Until the beginning of 2014, the price grew steadily, reaching new highs. Only in March does a serious price drawdown appear, which breaks through the trend line and strong support levels. At this point, most position traders close their trades as the a clear sign that the trend is ending.

The result of the transaction could be a 120% increase; if trading is carried out with a leverage of 1:20, then it was possible to increase the capital by more than 40 times, with just one transaction.

In terms of technical tools position trading implies the use of:

• trend channels;
• support and resistance levels;
• moving averages, especially those with a 200-day period.

The main task is to identify a strong global movement, so analysis of news and fundamental background is used. However, news does not have a decisive meaning in position trading, but only serves as confirmation of technical signals.

Poll: What type of trading do you prefer?

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Difference from investing

Positional trading refers to holding a transaction for a relatively long time in the direction of the global trend.

It is a mistake to believe that position trading is similar to investing in the popular sense. Let's look at their main differences:

• trading as the main source implies income from the profitable resale of an asset (stocks, futures, currency), while investing does not lower value gives away passive income(dividends, monthly payments);
• investors rely on fundamental analysis of the asset (company performance indicators, business growth prospects), while the trader focuses more on charts, using economic indicators for confirmation only;
• Returns are often calculated at the end of the year, and a successful investor can wait for the final results for decades.

The only similarity between a position trader and an investor is the long-term holding of an asset and nothing more. Thus, each market participant needs to decide who he really is - an investor or a speculator.

Differences between position trading and swing trading

Another popular strategy is this, which differs from positional trading, if not radically, then quite significantly. The swing focuses on average time intervals and most of traders receive income from entering the market based entirely on changes in the exchange rate, which will lead to a change in the value of the open position. For analysis, not a fundamental, but only a technical approach is used.

Position traders, in turn, work over large periods of time. They do not dwell on small price fluctuations, but study the long-term development prospects economic situation. The strategy is drawn up taking into account the trend of changes in the financial situation over days, weeks and even months.

This is the biggest difference between position trading and swing trading. The former take into account fundamental components in their decisions, such as long-term forecasts, political and economic decisions governments, financial models, etc. And the latter open transactions, looking at the short-term perspective of price fluctuations of the selected currency.

Position trading, unlike other business strategies, is most similar to investing, which means it provides a full range of financial instruments for stock transactions. The main goal of such trading is to hold the stock for as long as possible while it makes a profit. This period can last from several days to months. Here the main task is a careful study of a certain sector of the economy and its general condition at the time of opening a position, as well as forecasting the situation for the future in order to avoid risks. Useful assistant tools:

• Indicators;
• Trend lines;
• Long-term charts with non-technical information;
• Short-term charts with monthly and weekly changes;
• Fundamental analytics.

So, the whole strategy consists of three main steps:

1. Analysis of the economic sector and the position of the selected group of shares;
2. Choosing the most profitable moment to open a position;
3. Holding the stock for the longest period and closing it when sudden change economic situation.

You need to choose a positional trading strategy only for those assets for which you can conduct fundamental analysis and technical analytics, give the most accurate forecasts and be confident that the price trend will continue for a long period (at least a week).

Positional trading on Forex

Most Forex participants use positional trading as the main approach to making money. This is due to the fact that this particular method in the Forex market has the following advantages:

• Low commission costs;
• More time to make the right decision;
• There is no need for constant analysis and daily monitoring of the media and for adjusting positions.

As in stock trading, a trader must have a reserve of capital that can cover possible losses. When choosing a currency pair, one strong and one weak currency are accepted. Many participants make the mistake of analyzing only one currency and neglecting the analytics for the second.

Positional trading on the stock exchange has several basic principles, adhering to which you can ensure a 90% probability of successful trading:

1. Analysis of structure and market restrictions;
2. Determination of monthly trend reversals;
3. A calm approach to business without unnecessary risks and excessive greed;
4. Confidence in own decisions taken into account and , news statements, forecasts and analysts' comments;
5. Cool study of the media;
6. Entering a transaction with a size of assets that can be at least 5% at risk of loss.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Any trading style has its advantages and disadvantages. In scalping, this means a long stay at the computer and strong nervous tension, but then high level potential profit. The advantages of position trading include the following aspects:

• a relatively high percentage of profitable trades, since long-term trends are much more common on large time intervals and it is difficult to manipulate the market (put out stop orders);
• no need for a long stay at the monitor - the position can be monitored once a day or even a week;
• the possibility of a calm and long-term analysis (you can think about it for several days before entering);
• lower risk of psychological breakdown due to less frequent monitoring of the schedule;
• Huge profit potential with gradual increase and retention of a position.

The list is not exhaustive; the most significant advantages of the positional style are presented here. Let's move on to the disadvantages:

• long waits for results that can only really be measured months or years later;
• high responsibility for each forecast and analysis, since it can take many days and weeks in holding the wrong position;
• slow progress in trading (it’s good to hold positions if the trader already has experience, but you won’t be able to gain it quickly by opening trades once a year);
• the need for significant capital investments (you can only get significant income from positional trading if you have a decent amount of money in your account).

As a result, maintaining a position in certain cases is a significant advantage for an experienced trader, but disastrous for novice speculators.

Conclusion

So what is position trading - investing or trading?

Still, positional trading, in simple words, is not an investment, but trading, since the investor only hopes for growth, believes in the company, and he may not analyze the market, but influence the company itself. A position trader can trade for lower prices and in different markets.

Position trading is significantly different from day trading, scalping or swing in that it is aimed at holding a position throughout the entire trend, and not a specific part of it (fluctuations).

This approach is well suited for experienced traders with significant capital investments, and less so for beginners with a small deposit.

Positional changes , occurring with sounds in the stream of speech (within one morpheme), are associated with the impact of sounds on each other, as well as with the general conditions of pronunciation: position at the absolute beginning / end of the word, stressed / without stressed syllable etc.

Positional changes of vowels are associated primarily with the position in the stressed / specific pre-stressed or post-stressed syllable, at the absolute beginning or end of the word (see reduced vowels), as well as with the influence of soft consonants: vowels adapt to the articulation of soft consonants and, during pronunciation, move forward and upward or in the initial phase of its formation (if the soft consonant precedes the vowel), either in the final stage (the soft consonant comes after the vowel), or in general (the vowel is surrounded by soft consonants).

Positional changes of consonants in the flow of speech can relate to any of the characteristics: deafness / voicedness, hardness / softness, place and method of formation.

Strong positions for voiceless/voiced(i.e. those where this feature remains independent, independent of anything and serves to distinguish words and morphemes):

1) before vowels: there – I’ll give;

2) before sonorants: layer – evil;

3) before [в], [в’]: check – beast.

Weak positions for voiceless/voiced(i.e. those where this feature is not independent, depends on the position in the word or the phonetic environment):

1) at the end of the word, voiced noisy words are deafened: snow, oak;

2) before consonants (except for sonorants and [в], [в’]):

Deafening of voiced noisy ones in front of deaf ones (boat, spoon);

Voicing of voiceless noisy ones before voiced ones (threshing, request).

Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, i.e. two vowels or two consonants is called assimilation(from Latin assimilatio - “likeness”). In some cases, assimilation may result in long consonants (behind, give). In any case, the direction of influence is the same - from the subsequent sound to the previous one. This type of assimilation is called regressive assimilation. (Progressive assimilation is extremely rare: it is observed, for example, in the dialect pronunciation of words like “Vanka” [van "k"a], but this does not correspond to modern spelling norms.)

Strong positions for hard/soft consonants:

1) before vowels, including [e]: bow - hatch, nose - carried, pastel - bed (soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, hard ones - in borrowed ones);

2) at the end of the word: kon – horse;

3) before back-lingual consonants (for front-lingual ones): bank - bathhouse, gorka - bitterly;

4) before labial consonants (in front-linguals): izba - carving;

5) for sounds [l], [l’], regardless of their position: the wave is free.

Weak positions are all the rest. Assimilation in hardness, for example, is observed in the case of the connection of a soft tooth with a hard tooth (horse - horse, ex.: June). Assimilation in terms of softness is carried out inconsistently and respectfully A not spoken by all speakers (door - [d], [d’], eat - [s], [s’]). Only the replacement of [n] with [n’] before [h”], [w’] (drummer, drummer) knows no deviations.

The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other (i.e. there are no strong positions).

Assimilation by place of education dental fricatives are exposed, which are replaced by anterior palatal ones before the anterior palatal noisy ones (sew, with championship, count);

Assimilation by mode of education plosive consonants are exposed, which alternate with affricates before fricatives and affricates of the same place of formation (spread, unhook).

In many cases, several features of consonants are subject to positional change at once.

The reverse of assimilation phenomenon, or dissimilation(from Latin dissimilatio - “dissimilarity”), consists in the loss of common phonetic characteristics by sounds. Such changes are characteristic of dialects and vernacular language; in the literary language they are associated with a limited range of examples: light, soft ([x"k’]) - dissimilation by method of formation + by deafness and softness.

In addition to the described phenomena, Russian speech can record simplification of consonant clusters(in a number of sound combinations, when three consonants are combined, one drops out): district, local, heart.

Syllable. Types of syllables.

Syllable- a sound or combination of sounds pronounced with one exhalation impulse.

IN modern linguistics became widespread sonorant syllable theory, developed by R.I. Avanesov. From the point of view of this theory, a syllable is considered as a set of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The most sonorous sound is considered to be the syllabic sound, which represents the core, the apex of the syllable, followed by other sounds - non-syllabic ones.

Avanesov assigned a certain type of sound to each type of sound. sonority level. Remember the chain:

Based on the relationship between noise and tone, all sounds of a language can be reflected in the form of a chain (as the noise increases):

vowels → sonorants acc. → noisy voiced acc. → noisy deaf acc. → pause

sonority level: 4 3 2 1 0

Thus, a syllable, according to Avanesov’s theory, represents waves of sonority. The number of syllables in a word is determined by the number of peaks, peaks of sonority. Usually the top of a syllable, i.e. syllabic sound, turns out to be a vowel. In rare cases, a consonant can also become syllabic, most often sonorants (this is achieved by inserting a vowel overtone before such consonants): [zhyz" ьн"]

Types of syllables characterized by initial and final sounds.

By initial sound syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with a consonant sound: [ru-ka];

2) uncovered – starting with a vowel sound: [a-ist].

By final sound syllables are divided into:

1) closed – ending in non-syllable sound(consonant): [balcony];

2) open – ending in a syllabic: [va-z].

Avanesov’s theory will help determine the boundaries of the syllable division, according to which a syllable in the Russian language is built according to law of ascending sonority– from the least sonorous to the most sonorous, i.e. syllabic. This law defines the following syllable features:

1) Non-finite syllables tend to be open: [na-u-k], [a-pa-zda-l].

2) Closed syllables can appear only in three cases:

At the end of the word: [pla-tok];

At the junction of sonorant and noisy in a non-initial syllable (sonorant goes to the previous syllable, noisy to the subsequent one): [balcony];

At the junction of any consonant (goes to the previous syllable, another consonant to the subsequent one): [ma j’-къ], [wa j’-na].

When dividing a word into syllables, it is necessary to keep in mind that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure and rules of transfer in writing.

Emphasis.

If a word consists of two or more syllables, then one of them is necessarily emphasized by the strength of the voice or the rise in tone. This emphasis on one of the syllables in a word is called word stress.

The phonetic type of stress is determined by the methods of highlighting a stressed syllable, which are not the same in different languages. The following phonetic types of stress are distinguished:

1) forceful stress (dynamic) is characterized by increased volume and increased exhalation force;

2) quantitative stress (quantitative) is associated with an increase in the length of pronunciation of the stressed syllable;

3) musical stress (tone) uses the movement of the vocal tone (ascending, descending, combined) to highlight the stressed syllable.

Stress in Russian is both forceful and quantitative.

Verbal stress performs an organizing function, combining into a single whole phonetic word- a group of syllables connected by a common word stress. Within the framework of a phonetic word, the stressed syllable turns out to be the reference point in relation to which the nature of the pronunciation of all other syllables is determined.

A phonetic word is not always equal to a lexical one. Some words in the text do not have their own stress, merging with adjacent stress and forming a single phonetic word with them. Unstressed word, adjacent to the shock in front (conjunction, preposition, particle, pronoun) is called a proclitic: I won’t see, dust and mosquitoes. An unstressed word (particle, pronoun) adjacent to a stressed word at the back is called an enclitic: tell me. A situation is possible when a monosyllabic preposition or particle “pulls” the verbal stress onto itself and turns the significant word into an enclitic: led by the nose, fell to the floor.

There are words in which, in addition to the main one, there is a weaker side stress. It most often falls on initial syllables and is recorded in complex words: building materials, aerial photography.

When characterizing stress, it is important to take into account its position in the word. If the stress is assigned to a certain syllable, it is fixed (for example, in French the emphasis can only fall on last syllable). Russian stress is not fixed to a specific syllable and can fall on any syllable on any morpheme in a word (vybyt, gold, forests, ordinary), i.e. is varied.

Another feature of the Russian accent is its mobility. When forming grammatical forms of a word, stress transition is possible:

1) from stem to ending and vice versa (country - countries, head - heads);

2) from one syllable to another within the same morpheme (tree - trees, lake - lakes).

So, Russian accent is characterized the following signs:

1) force and quantity according to the phonetic type;

2) different places in a word;

3) mobile according to the criterion of attachment to a specific morpheme during inflection.

Examples
Position
Members
alternation

At home, newer, standing
Stressed syllable
First prestressed syllable after a hard consonant

There are no exceptions, i.e. there are no cases (among commonly used full words Russian literary language), when the vowel [o] would be preserved in the second position, therefore, the alternation is positional.
The sound can alternate with zero (Table 5):
Table 5

Types of phonetic alternations. Phonetic alternations, in turn, are positional and combinatorial. Positional alternation is a phonetic alternation of sounds depending on their position (position) in relation to the beginning or end of a word or in relation to a stressed syllable. Combinatorial alternation of sounds reflects their combinatorial changes due to the influence of neighboring sounds.

Another classification is their division on positional exchange and positional change. The basic concept for phenomena of phonetic nature is position– phonetically determined place of sound in the flow of speech in relation to significant manifestations of living phonetic laws: in Russian, for example, for vowels – in relation to stress or hardness/softness of the preceding consonant (in Proto-Slavic – in relation to the subsequent jj, in English – closedness /openness of syllable); for consonants - in relation to the end of the word or to the quality of the neighboring consonant. The types of phonetic alternations differ by the degree of positional conditioning. Positional exchange- alternation, rigidly occurring in all cases without exception and significant for meaning differentiation (a native speaker distinguishes it in the flow of speech): “akanye” - non-distinction of phonemes A and O in unstressed syllables, their coincidence in /\ or in b. Positional change– acts only as a tendency (knows exceptions) and is not recognized by a native speaker due to the lack of a semantic distinguishing function: A in MOTHER and MEAT are phonetically different A ([[ayaÿ]]and [[dä]]), but we do not recognize this difference; soft pronunciation of consonants before E is almost mandatory, but unlike I, there are exceptions (TEMP, TENDENCE).

Historical (traditional) alternations are alternations of sounds representing different phonemes, so historical alternations are reflected in writing. Non-phonetic, non-positional (historical) alternations are associated with the expression of grammatical (friend-friends) and word-formation (friend) meanings: act as an additional means of inflection, (formation and word formation. The historical alternation of sounds accompanying the formation of derivative words or grammatical forms of words is also called morphological, since it is determined by the proximity of phonemes with certain suffixes or inflections: for example, before diminutive suffixes -k(a), -ok etc. back-linguals regularly alternate with hissing ones (hand-hand, friend-friend), and before the suffix -yva(~yva-) part of the verbs alternates root vowels <о-а>(work-work out). Types of historical alternations.

1) Actually historical, phonetic-historical– alternations reflecting traces of once active living phonetic processes (palatalization, fall of reduced ones, iotation, etc.);

2)Etymological– reflecting the semantic or stylistic differentiation that once occurred in the language: EQUAL (identical) // EVEN (smooth), SOUL // SOUL; complete agreement // partial agreement, PR/PRI.

3) Grammatical, differentiating– which also have at the synchronic level the function of differentiating grammatical phenomena: NEIGHBOR//NEIGHBORS (D//D’’) – the change from hard to soft contrasts the singular and plural(these cases do not include truly different indicators, for example, conjugations –I and E, USH and YASH, since here we have before us not an exchange at the level of sound, but an opposition of morphological forms (the same – ENGINEER Y//ENGINEER A)).It is clear that all these phenomena, which have different natures, are only conditionally grouped as “historical” - therefore the term “non-phonetic” would be more accurate.

LECTURE 8. Positional change and positional changes of vowels and consonants. Historical alternations of vowels and consonants

Phonetic processes in the vowel area .

Positional exchange. The main cases of positional exchange of vowels include cases of qualitative reduction of the vowel sounds A, O, E in unstressed positions. High-quality reduction– this is a weakening of sound, which is accompanied by a change in acoustic-articulatory characteristics (the sound changes its DP). There are positions: percussion– the sound remains unchanged (strong position); first pre-shock– first degree of reduction; second(all other unstressed positions) – the second degree of reduction (weak first and second positions). The sounds I, U, Y do not undergo qualitative changes, they change only quantitatively. Qualitative reduction of these sounds has different results depending on whether they appear after a soft or hard consonant. See table.

Let's not forget about the phenomena absolute beginning words where A and O in both the first and second positions will be the same /\ (instead of /\ for the first and the expected b for the second position: [] ORANGE. E, respectively, in both the first and second positions will be (instead of in the first and Kommersant in the second): SHOT [[t/\zh''erk]].

*Sometimes after hard hissing Ж, Ш, Ц in the first position A instead of the expected /\ sounds like E: you just need to remember such words - JACKET, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, RYE, JASMINE, HORSES, TWENTY, THIRTY. But this is not for me, but for the next topic (changes), and also for spelling.

Positional changes. Positional changes include phenomena accommodation vowels before soft and after soft consonants. Accommodation is the process of mutual adaptation of sounds of different nature (vowel to consonant or vice versa). After a soft consonant, a non-front vowel moves forward and upward in formation at the beginning of pronunciation (progressive accommodation), before a soft one - at the end (regressive accommodation), between a soft one - throughout utterances (progressive-regressive accommodation).

For the sounds O, A, E - only under stress - all 4 cases are possible; for sounds U - both stressed and not, all 4 cases; for ы both under stress and without stress, only 2 cases are possible ы and ыяÿ, for And a dot is not placed in front, since it is not used after a hard word - 2 cases And иыь. Sometimes instead of Yo (between soft ones) they designate kê – SING [[p’’kêt’’]]. Y and JJ are considered soft.

Another case of positional changes is the progressive accommodation of the initial I in Y, when a consonant prefix is ​​added to the root: GAME - PLAY UP (this applies to changes, since it knows exceptions - PEDAGOGICAL INSTITUTE is also possible to pronounce I).

Non-phonetic processes in the vowel area.

at the root - BIR//BER, GOR//GAR, non-accord//full consonance, E//O, A//Z, U//YU at the beginning of the word, O//E type VESNY//SPRING; in the prefix – PRE//PRI, NOT//NI, in the suffix – EK//IK, ETs//ITs, OVA//EVA//YVA//IVA, IN//EN//AN, in adjectives; at the end - OV//EV, IY//EYE, OH//EYE, OM//EM, ІY//Ой//Ий

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent vowels”): in the root – DAY//DAY, WINDOW//WINDOWS, COLLECT//TAKE, WHO//WHOM, WHAT//WHAT, in the prefix – THROUGH//THROUGH, PRE//PERE, WITH//CO, VZ//WHOZ , IN//IN, OVER//NADO, FROM//OTO, KOY//KOE, in the suffix – PEAS//PEAS, RED//RED, BIRD//BIRD, TI//TH of the verb, SK//ESK, СН//ЭСН in adjectives, in the ending – ОY//ОУ, in the postfix – СЯ//Сь

The alternation RAZ//ROZ refers to phonetic types of writing and is one of the rare cases of reflection in writing not of history, but phonetic alternation within one phoneme - the strong position O (under stress, which naturally sounds in the first and second positions, respectively, as /\ and Ъ, which is reflected in the letter as A.

Phonetic processes in the area of ​​consonants.

Positional exchange. TO positional change consonants include diverse processes united by a common feature - they know no exceptions. 1) Positional deafening of noisy voiced sounds at the end of a word - RODA-ROD [[T]]; 2) Regressive assimilation by voicing - noisy deaf people are voiced before voiced ones MOWING-MOWING [[Z]] (assimilation is the process of assimilation of homogeneous sounds - the influence of vowels on vowels, consonants on consonants, in contrast to accommodation); regressive assimilation by deafness - noisy voiced ones are deafened in front of noisy voiced ones - BOAT[[T]]. The process does not concern sonorants - neither the sonorants themselves, nor the noisy ones before the sonorants. Interesting double role sound B (it is no coincidence that some also consider it sonorant). In front of it, noisy ones behave not as in front of a voiced one, but as in front of a sonorant one - they do not become voiced (RESPECT: T does not turn into D); and he himself behaves like a noisy voiced person - in front of a deaf person and at the end of the word he is deafened - STORE [[F]]; 3) Regressive assimilation by softness - will be exchanged only for the anterior lingual teeth D, T, S, Z, N before any of them soft: NEWS [[S’’T’’]]; 4) Complete (such assimilation in which the sound changes not just one DP, but its entire characteristic) regressive assimilation of Z, S before hissing Sh, F, CH,SH, C – SEW [[SHH]], HAPPINESS [[SH’’SH’’]]; T and D before CH – REPORT [[CH’’CH’’]]; T+S= C – FIGHT [[CC]]; T and D before C (FATHER [[TTS]]; S and Z before SH (SPLITTLE [[Ш''Ш'']]; 5) Dieresis (loss of sound on a dissimilative basis) – KNOWN, HOLIDAY; ​​6) Dissimilation ( reverse assimilation - dissimilarity of sounds) G before K – SOFT [[ХК]]; 7) Accommodation by softness in front of I, b, (except C, W, F, H) – HAND // HANDS [[K]]//[[K’’]]; 8) Vocalization of the phoneme JJ: as a consonant sound jj appears only at the beginning of a stressed syllable (YUG), and in other positions it acts as a non-syllabic sound - a vowel sound.

Note: B at the end of participial and adverbial suffixes does not transform into F; there is F, because in strong position it never sounds like B (no alternation). The same thing - we must distinguish between, say, the loss of sound in the synchrony SUN and in the diachrony FEELING, where at the modern level there is no loss, because there is no alternation with its full version.

Positional changes. Processes that occur as a trend, but have exceptions. 1) Assimilation in softness of labial and dental before labial and R before labial (Z''BELIEV, LYUB''VI). The old norm required exactly this pronunciation, but now, apparently under the influence of spelling, this is not relevant. 2) Assimilation by softness before jj: most often softened, but, again under the influence of spelling, before the dividing b, denoting jj, at the junction of the prefix and the root - the hard consonant EAT [[С]] sounds; 3) Irregular dissimilation of H before T or N: WHAT, OF COURSE [[SHT]][[SHN]](does not always happen - for example SOMETHING - already only [[TH]]); 4) Accommodation by the softness of hard words before E - now, in many foreign words, it is also possible to pronounce a hard consonant before E: REVENGE [[M’’]], but TEMP [[T]]. 5) Deafening of the sonor in the position at the end of the word after the hard PETER. 6) Sonoran vocalization - the acquisition of a syllabic character by a sonorant consonant in a cluster of consonants - SHIP[[ъ]]Л, TEMB[[ъ]]Р. All of these processes are at the same time orthoepic, because fluctuations in regular pronunciation are the reason for orthoepic variation.

Non-phonetic processes in the area of ​​consonants.

1) Historical alternations of phonemes: traces of palatalization (first, second, third) HAND//HANDLE; traces of the influence of iota LIGHT//CANDLE; traces of simplification of consonant groups BEREGU//BERECH; stun at the end of a word (unchecked BY DOING [[F]]); historical exchange of G for V in the endings of adjectives – RED [[V]]; alternation of suffixes CHIC//SCHIK; non-phonetic (phonemic) softness - WILL // BE, ZARYA // RADIANT (here it is not a softening, because in the word ZARYA before A should not be softened (non-anterior) - there is no positional conditionality).

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent consonants): traces of L-epentheticum – EARTHLY//EARTH [[–]]//[[L]]; historical diaeresis (unverifiable) FEELING, LADDER; adjective suffixes SK//K; endings OV(EV)//– (GRAM//GRAMS).

Note. The change of Z//S in prefixes like IZ, WHO, RAZ, although reflected in the writing, is in fact not a historical, but a living, phonetic process of assimilation in terms of voiced-voicelessness: it’s just that phonetic, not phonemic, spelling is implemented here.

LECTURE 9. Segmental and supersegmental units. Stress and its types

Linear units are also called segmental, since they are obtained as a result of segmentation against the background of comparison with other similar units as minimal independent fragments. But as a result of the division of the sound flow, other, no longer limiting units are distinguished, which are called supersegmental. Supersegmental are units that do not have an independent semantic character, but simply organize the speech flow due to the characteristics of the matter of sound and our organs of speech and senses. If supersegmental units are not related to the expression of meaning, they still have their own articulatory-acoustic specificity. The articulatory-acoustic characteristics of supersegmental units are called PROSODY.

PROSODY is a set of phonetic features such as tone, volume, tempo, and general timbre coloring of speech. Initially, the term “prosody” (Greek prosodia – stress, melody) was applied to poetry and singing and meant a certain rhythmic and melodic scheme superimposed on a chain of sounds. The understanding of prosody in linguistics is similar to that accepted in the theory of verse in the sense that prosodic features relate not to segments (sounds, phonemes), but to the so-called supra- (i.e. over-) segmental components of speech, longer in duration than a separate segment - to a syllable, word, syntagma (intonation-semantic unity, usually consisting of several words) and sentence. Accordingly, prosodic features are characterized by duration and impreciseness of their implementation.

The section of phonetics that studies these characteristics is called accordingly. Since their characteristics come down to two types of phenomena – STRESS and INTONATION, this section is divided into two subsections: ACCENTOLOGY and INTONOLOGY.

ACCENTOLOGY(Latin akcentus “emphasis” + Greek logos “word, teaching”). 1. System of accents of the language. 2. The doctrine of accentual (prosodic) means of language. Aspects of accentology: descriptive, comparative-historical, theoretical. Descriptive accentology studies the phonetic, phonological, and grammatical properties of prosodic means. Comparative-historical accentology studies historical changes in accent systems, their external and internal reconstruction. Theoretical accentology describes systemic relationships prosodic means, role in the structure of significant units, language functions.

The central concept of accentology is emphasis.STRESS in a broad sense –– this is any emphasis (emphasis) in the flow of sounding speech of one or another part of it (a sound - as part of a syllable, a syllable - as part of a word, a word - as part of a speech tact, syntagm; syntagm as part of a phrase) using phonetic means. STRESS in in the narrow sense–– verbal stress only

TYPES OF STRESS:

According to the acoustic-articulatory characteristics, stress differs between monotonic (expiratory) and polytonic (musical, melodic, tonic, tonal). They also talk about the quantitative type of stress.

Russian-type stress was traditionally considered dynamic, or expiratory. It was assumed that increased respiratory and articulatory effort on stressed vowels is reflected in their increased acoustic intensity.

Another way of organizing the relationship between stressed and unstressed syllables is possible: the vowel of a stressed syllable lengthens, while the unstressed ones retain a neutral duration (the quality of the vowels remains almost unchanged). These are languages ​​with quantitative (quantitative) stress. Modern Greek is usually cited as an example of this type of stress. In it, unstressed sounds are not subject to reduction and differ from stressed sounds only in the absence of an increment in duration. In ancient times, many languages ​​had such an accent.

Traditionally, there is another type of stress – tonal. In Europe, it is represented in the South Slavic (Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and Scandinavian (Swedish and Norwegian) languages. This type of stress is associated with a special interaction between verbal and phrasal prosody. In most languages ​​of the world, the beginning of the tonal movement that implements phrasal accent is combined with the beginning of the stressed syllable. However, it is also possible for two landmarks to appear to place the tonal emphasis. For example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there was a shift of stress by one syllable to the left (the so-called “retraction”), and in the place of stress, words with the former stress on the second syllable coincided with those that had the original initial stress; the old orientation of the tonal accent of the phrase was preserved. Therefore, in words where the stress has not shifted, the falling tone of the statement falls on the stressed vowel, and where it has shifted, the fall in tone falls on the overstressed syllable, while the fall in tone is often preceded by its rise. As a result, on the initial stressed syllable the falling and rising tones are opposed. For example, words glory, power in Serbo-Croatian have a falling accent, and words leg, needle–– ascending.

The object of emphasis is emphasized syllabic, verbal, syntagmatic (beat), phrasal.

Accent syllabic–– highlighting a specific sound within a syllable. Syllable stress is a change in the sound strength or tone of a syllabic sound. There are usually five types of syllable stress: smooth, ascending, descending, ascending-descending, descending-ascending. With rising stress, the syllable is characterized by rising intonation. With a descending stress, the stressed syllable is characterized by a descending intonation.

Accent verbal–– highlighting one syllable in a word using phonetic means, serving for phonetic unification. this word.

Russian verbal stress has qualitative and quantitative characteristics. According to the traditional point of view, Russian verbal stress is dynamic (force), expiratory, expiratory, i.e. the stressed vowel is the strongest and loudest in the word. However, experimental phonetic studies indicate that the loudness (“strength”) of a vowel depends both on the quality of the vowel ([a] is the loudest, \у], [and], [ы]- the quietest), and on the position of the vowel in the word: the closer to the beginning of the word the vowel is, the greater its volume, for example, in the word gardens an unstressed vowel is stronger than a stressed vowel. Therefore, an essential characteristic word stress is its duration: a stressed vowel differs in longer duration from an unstressed one. In addition, a stressed syllable is distinguished by greater clarity: under stress, sounds are pronounced that are impossible in an unstressed position.

The languages ​​of the world differ both in the rhythmic patterns allowed in words and in the functions performed by stress in them. An example of a language with an exceptional variety of accentual (i.e., stressed) possibilities is Russian. Since the stress can fall on any syllable of a word, it can perform a semantic distinguishing function, contrasting pairs like: saw - pli, zmok - castle, etc.

In many languages, stress is fixed, occupying a permanent place in the word. Fixed stress is oriented toward extreme positions in a word—either its beginning or its end. Thus, Czech and Hungarian languages ​​have stress on the first syllable, Polish on the penultimate, and most Turkic languages ​​on the last. Languages ​​have a similar rhythmic organization, in which stress can occupy one of two positions, oriented to the edge of the word, and its placement depends on the so-called distribution of “light” and “heavy” syllables. “Light” are syllables that end in a short vowel, and “heavy” are syllables that have either a long vowel or a vowel covered by a final consonant. Thus, in Latin and Arabic, the stress in non-monosyllabic words falls on the penultimate syllable if it is “heavy”, otherwise it shifts to the previous syllable.

Russian stress is not only variable, but also mobile: it can shift when the grammatical form of the word changes (vod - vdu). English has more limited accent capabilities. As in Russian, the stress in it is varied, which implies the possibility of contrasting pairs like: ўsubject “subject” –– subўject “to subordinate”, ўdesert “desert” –– deўsert “to desert”; English stress can also change during suffixal word formation: ўsensitive –– sensitivity. However, inflectional possibilities English language are small, and there is no change in stress during inflection.

Languages ​​also show significant differences in the distribution of gradations of force in the unstressed part of a word. In some languages, all unstressed syllables in to the same degree are opposed to the stressed one, although the marginal syllables may have additional strengthening or weakening. In other languages, the principle of "dipodia" operates: stronger and weaker syllables follow one another, with a gradual weakening of strength as they move away from the apex. This is the situation in Finnish and Estonian: the main stress in them falls on the first syllable, the secondary stress on the third, and the tertiary stress on the fifth. The situation in the Russian language is unusual: the pre-stressed syllable here is inferior in strength to the stressed syllable, but exceeds the others: potakla (here means reduced a).

There is another possibility of varying the prosodic scheme of a word with “dynamic” stress: different phonetic parameters can enhance different positions in this scheme. So, in Turkic languages The main accent vertex of a word is the final syllable, on which the intonation accent is placed. However, there is also a center of collateral reinforcement – ​​the initial syllable, which has a loudness accent.

Languages ​​without accent (accent). In many languages ​​outside of Europe, there is no clearly defined accentual vertex of the word, and scientists have difficulty determining the place of stress. A typical example is Georgian, regarding the rhythmic organization of which there is no single point of view. There is an opinion that the assumption that the rhythmic combination of the syllables of a word is mandatory is false (V.B. Kasevich et al., S.V. Kodzasov). In particular, the history of the Russian language speaks in its favor. In Old Russian, a significant number of forms of full-valued words were the so-called “enclinomen” (V.A. Dybo, A.A. Zaliznyak). These words did not have their own stress and were added in the form of enclitics to the preceding full-stressed words.

Accent functions.Word-forming function: phonetic combination of a word. Russian words have only one main (acute) stress, but difficult words In addition to the main one, they can also have a secondary, side (gravity) stress: cf. rural And agricultural. The recognition function of word stress is also associated with the word-forming function, which allows you to recognize the word, since the word is characterized by non-two-stress.

One of the most important functions of word stress is differentiating function: stress serves as a means of distinguishing words (flour And flour, castle And lock) and their different meanings (chaos And chaos), word forms (hands And hands), as well as stylistic variations of the word (you call and decomposition you call, it's cold and dial. cold, alcohol and prof. alcohol,

The movable stress is not fixed on a separate syllable or morpheme and can be inflectional And word-formation. Mobile inflectional stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another during inflection (hand-hands). Mobile word-formation stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another during word formation (horse-horse, hand – pen). Along with the movable stress, the Russian language also presents a fixed stress: shoe, shoes.

Not every vocabulary word has its own word stress. Functional words receive stress in the flow of speech only in exceptional cases, but usually they form clitics. In a statement, as a rule, there are fewer stresses than words, due to the formation of phonetic words, in which function and independent words are combined with one stress.

The accent is timed ( syntagmatic) – highlighting one of the words in a speech beat (syntagma) by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel last word in speech beat: In the original autumn there is / a short, / but wonderful time //.

The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - - bar accent: On dry aspen / hoodie/... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. Speech tact is sometimes called syntagma.

The main means of dividing into syntagms is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma).

A phrase usually stands out and contains several speech beats, but the boundaries of the phrase and the beat may coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy //(Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine And Field/behind the ravine.

Phrase stress–– highlighting one of the words in a phrase by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech bar (syntagm): There is an initial autumn / short, / butmarvelousit's time //.

Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions – logical And emphatic.

Stress logical (semantic)– stress, which consists of highlighting a certain part of a sentence (usually a word), on which the speakers focus their main attention. Logical stress is observed in cases where the content of speech requires special emphasis on certain parts of the statement. With the help logical stress Usually one or another word is highlighted in a sentence, important from the logical, semantic side, on which all attention should be concentrated

In this chapter:

§1. Sound

Sound- the minimum unit of sounding speech. Each word has a sound shell consisting of sounds. The sound corresponds to the meaning of the word. Different words and word forms have different sound patterns. The sounds themselves don't matter, but they do important role: They help us distinguish:

• words: [house] - [tom], [tom] - [there], [m’el] - [m’el’]
• forms of the word: [house] - [lady´ ] - [house´ ma].

Please note:

words written in square brackets, are given in transcription.

§2. Transcription

Transcription- This special system recordings showing the sound. The following symbols are used in the transcription:

Square brackets indicating transcription.

[ ´ ] - emphasis. The accent is placed if the word consists of more than one syllable.

[b’] - the icon next to the consonant indicates its softness.

[j] and [th] are different designations for the same sound. Since this sound is soft, these symbols are often used with an additional designation of softness: [th’]. This site uses the notation [th’], which is more familiar to most guys. The softness icon will be used to help you get used to the sound being soft.

There are other symbols. They will be introduced gradually as you become familiar with the topic.

§3. Vowels and consonants

Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
They have different natures. They are pronounced and perceived differently, and also behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.

Vowels- these are sounds during the pronunciation of which air passes freely through the oral cavity without encountering an obstacle on its way. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of vowels is determined by the shape of the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords in the larynx work. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be drawn out. You can shout them. And if you put your hand to your throat, you can feel the work of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels, feel it with your hand. Vowels are the basis of a syllable; they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: He- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, Guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, and and interjections: Oh!, Ah!, Oooh! and others.

In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
Stressed syllable one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
IN unstressed syllables vowels are modified and pronounced differently. Changing vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction.

There are six stressed vowels in the Russian language: [a], [o], [u], [s], [i], [e].

Remember:

There are words that can only consist of vowels, but consonants are also necessary.
In the Russian language there are many more consonants than vowels.

§4. Method of formation of consonants

Consonants- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air encounters an obstacle in its path. There are two types of obstruents in the Russian language: gap and stop - these are the two main ways of forming consonants. The type of obstruction determines the nature of the consonant sound.

Gap is formed, for example, when pronouncing sounds: [s], [z], [w], [z]. The tip of the tongue only approaches the lower or upper teeth. Friction consonants can be pulled: [s-s-s-s], [sh-sh-sh-sh] . As a result, you will clearly hear the noise: when pronouncing [c] - whistling, and when pronouncing [w] - hissing.

Bow, The second type of articulation of consonants is formed when the organs of speech close. The air flow abruptly overcomes this obstacle, the sounds are short and energetic. That's why they are called explosive. You won't be able to pull them. These are, for example, the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d] . Such articulation is easier to feel and sense.

So, when pronouncing consonants, noise is heard. The presence of noise is a distinctive feature of consonants.

§5. Voiced and voiceless consonants

According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and unvoiced.
When spoken voiced consonants, both voice and noise are heard, and deaf- only noise.
Deaf words cannot be spoken loudly. They cannot be shouted.

Let's compare the words: house And cat. Each word has 1 vowel sound and 2 consonants. The vowels are the same, but the consonants are different: [d] and [m] are voiced, and [k] and [t] are voiceless. Voicedness-voicelessness is the most important feature of consonants in the Russian language.

voiced-voiceless pairs:[b] - [p], [z] - [c] and others. There are 11 such pairs.

Voiceless-voiced pairs: [p] and [b], [p"] and [b"], [f] and [v], [f"] and [v"], [k] and [d], [k"] and [g"], [t] and [d], [t"] and [d"], [w] and [g], [s] and [z], [s"] and [ z"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of voicedness - deafness. For example, the sounds [r], [l], [n], [m], [y’] do not have a voiceless pair, but [ts] and [ch’] do not have a voiced pair.

Unpaired according to deafness-voicing

Voiced unpaired:[r], [l], [n], [m], [th"], [r"], [l"], [n"], [m"] . They are also called sonorous.

What does this term mean? This is a group of consonants (9 in total) that have peculiarities of pronunciation: when pronouncing them, obstacles also arise in the oral cavity, but such that air jet , passing through an obstacle produces only minor noise; air passes freely through an opening in the nasal or oral cavity. Sonorants are pronounced using the voice with the addition of slight noise. Many teachers do not use this term, but everyone should know that these sounds are voiced unpaired.

Sonorants have two important features:

1) they are not deafened, like paired voiced consonants, before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word;

2) before them there is no voicing of paired voiceless consonants (i.e. the position before them is strong in voicelessness-voicing, as before vowels). See more about positional changes.

Voiceless unpaired:[ts], [h"], [w":], [x], [x"].

How can it be easier to remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants?

The following phrases will help you remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants:

Oh, we didn’t forget each other!(Here only voiced consonants)

Foka, do you want to eat some soup?(Here only voiceless consonants)

True, these phrases do not include pairs of hardness and softness. But usually people can easily figure out that not only hard [z] is voiced, but also soft [z"] too, not only [b], but also [b"], etc.

§6. Hard and soft consonants

Consonants differ not only in deafness and voicedness, but also in hardness and softness.
Hardness-softness- the second most important sign of consonants in the Russian language.

Soft consonants different from solid special position of the tongue. When pronouncing hard words, the entire body of the tongue is pulled back, and when pronouncing soft words, it is moved forward, and the middle part of the tongue is raised. Compare: [m] - [m’], [z] - [z’]. Voiced soft ones sound higher than hard ones.

Many Russian consonants form hardness-softness pairs: [b] - [b’], [v] - [v’] and others. There are 15 such pairs.

Hardness-softness pairs: [b] and [b"], [m] and [m"], [p] and [p"], [v] and [v"], [f] and [f"] , [z] and [z"], [s] and [s"], [d] and [d"], [t] and [t"], [n] and [n"], [l] and [l"], [p] and [p"], [k] and [k"], [g] and [g"], [x] and [x"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of hardness and softness. For example, the sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] do not have a soft pair, but [y’] and [h’] do not have a hard pair.

Unpaired in hardness-softness

Hard unpaired: [zh], [w], [ts] .

Soft unpaired: [th"], [h"], [w":].

§7. Indication of softness of consonants in writing

Let's take a break from pure phonetics. Let's take a practical look important question: How is the softness of consonants indicated in writing?

There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language, including 15 hard-soft pairs, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants. There are only 21 consonants. How can 21 letters represent 36 sounds?

Various methods are used for this:

• iotized letters e, e, yu, i after consonants, except w, w And ts, unpaired in hardness-softness, indicate that these consonants are soft, for example: aunt- [t’o´ t’a], uncle -[d'a´ d'a] ;
• letter And after consonants, except w, w And ts. Consonants indicated by letters w, w And ts, unpaired solids. Examples of words with a vowel letter And: nothing- [n’i´ tk’i], sheet- [l’ist], Cute- [Cute'] ;
• letter b, after consonants, except sh, f, after which soft sign is an indicator grammatical form. Examples of words with a soft sign : request- [prose], stranded- [m’el’], distance- [gave’].

Thus, the softness of consonants in writing not transmitted special letters, and combinations of consonants with letters and, e, e, yu, I And b. Therefore, when parsing, I advise you to pay special attention to adjacent letters after consonants.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

School textbooks say that [w] and [sh’] - unpaired in hardness and softness. How so? We hear that the sound [w’] is a soft analogue of the sound [w].
When I was at school myself, I couldn’t understand why? Then my son went to school. He had the same question. It appears in all children who approach learning thoughtfully.

The confusion arises because school books They don’t take into account that the sound [sh’] is also long, but the hard sound [sh] is not. Pairs are sounds that differ in only one attribute. And [w] and [w’] - two. Therefore [w] and [w’] are not pairs.

For adults and high school students.

In order to maintain correctness, it is necessary to change the school tradition of transcribing the sound [w’]. It seems that it is easier for the guys to use one more additional sign than to face an illogical, unclear and misleading statement. It's simple. So that generation after generation does not rack their brains, it is necessary to finally show that a soft hissing sound is long.

For this purpose, in linguistic practice there are two icons:

1) superscript above the sound;
2) colon.

Usage superscript inconvenient because it is not provided by a set of characters that can be used in computer typing. This means that the following possibilities remain: using a colon [w’:] or a grapheme denoting the letter [w’] . It seems to me that the first option is preferable. Firstly, children often mix sounds and letters at first. The use of a letter in transcription will create the basis for such confusion and provoke an error. Secondly, children are now starting to learn foreign languages ​​early. And the [:] symbol, when used to indicate the length of a sound, is already familiar to them. Thirdly, transcription indicating longitude with a colon [:] will perfectly convey the features of the sound. [sh’:] - soft and long, both features that make up its difference from the sound [sh] are presented clearly, simply and unambiguously.

What advice can you give to children who are now studying using generally accepted textbooks? You need to understand, comprehend, and then remember that in fact the sounds [w] and [w’:] do not form a pair in terms of hardness and softness. And I advise you to transcribe them the way your teacher requires.

§8. Place of formation of consonants

Consonants differ not only according to the characteristics already known to you:

• deafness-voice,
• hardness-softness,
• method of formation: bow-slit.

The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.
The articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, it in different parts. So, the sounds [p], [p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m'] are labial, [v], [v'], [f], [f' ] - labial-dental, all others - lingual: anterior lingual [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [s], [s'], [z ], [z'], [w], [w], [w':], [h'], [c], [l], [l'], [r], [r'] , middle lingual [th’] and back lingual [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’].

§9. Positional changes of sounds

1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional changes of vowels. Reduction

People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which a particular sound appears are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, a stressed syllable, an unstressed syllable, a position before a vowel, a position before a consonant - these are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.

Strong position one in which sounds do not undergo positionally determined changes and appear in their basic form. A strong position is allocated for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is a position in a stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position before vowels is strong.

For vowels, the strong position is under stress, and the weak position is unaccented..
In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and are not pronounced as clearly as under stress. This change in vowels in a weak position is called reduction. Due to reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong position.

The sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a] after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. “Akanye” is recognized as normative in the Russian language, i.e. non-discrimination ABOUT And A in an unstressed position after hard consonants.

• under stress: [house] - [dam] - [o] ≠ [a].
• without accent: [d A ma´ ] -home´ - [d A la´ ] -dala´ - [a] = [a].

The sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e] after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. The standard pronunciation is “hiccup”, i.e. non-discrimination E And A in an unstressed position after soft consonants.

• under stress: [m’ech’] - [m’ach’] - [e] ≠[a].
• without accent: [m’ich’o´ m]- sword´ m -[m'ich'o´ m] - ball´ m - [and] = [and].
• But what about the vowels [i], [s], [u]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position are only subject to quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a schoolchild these vowels in an unstressed position do not pose a problem.

[ski´ zhy], [in _lu´ zhu], [n’i´ t’i] - in both strong and weak positions the quality of vowels does not change. Both under stress and in unstressed position we clearly hear: [ы], [у], [и] and we write the letters that are usually used to denote these sounds.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?

When performing phonetic analysis and transcribing words, many guys express bewilderment. In long polysyllabic words, after hard consonants, it is not the sound [a] that is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.

They're right.

Compare the pronunciation of words: Moscow - Muscovites. Repeat each word several times and listen to what vowel sounds in the first syllable. With the word Moscow it's simple. We pronounce: [maskva´] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? According to literary norm, in all syllables, except the first syllable before stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we pronounce not [a], but another sound: less distinct, less clear, more similar to [s] than to [a]. IN scientific tradition This sound is indicated by the symbol [ъ]. This means that in reality we pronounce: [mаlako´] - milk ,[khrasho´ ] - Fine ,[kalbasa´] - sausage.

I understand that by giving this material in textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many children with good hearing, who clearly hear that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. In fact:

[V A yes´] - water´ -[V ъ d'inoy'] - water:[а]≠[ъ]
[other A wa´ ] - firewood´ -[other ъ in’ino´ th’] - wood-burning:[а]≠[ъ]

A special subsystem consists of the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after sibilants. But in school course This material is not presented at all in most textbooks.

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?

I feel the greatest sympathy for the children who study from textbooks that offer on-site A,E, ABOUT after soft consonants, hear and transcribe the sound “and, inclined to e.” I consider it fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren outdated norm pronunciation - “ehkanya”, which is found today much less often “hicca”, mainly among very elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place A And E- [And].

After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, except for the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short faint sound, reminiscent of [and] and denoted as [b]. Say the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [vo´ s’m’] - [b], [d’e´ v’t’] - [b].

Don't be confused:

Transcription marks are one thing, but letters are another.
The transcription sign [ъ] indicates a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ъ is a solid sign.
The transcription sign [b] indicates a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ь is a soft sign.
Transcription signs, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.

End of the word- special position. It shows clearing of vowels after soft consonants. System unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In it E And A differ:

Building[building n’ii’e] - buildings[building n’ii’a], opinion[mn’e´ n’i’e] - opinion[mn'e´ n'ii'a], more[mo´ r’e] - sea[mo´ r’a], will[vo´l’a] - at will[na_vo´l’e]. Remember this when doing phonetic analysis of words.

Check:

How your teacher requires you to mark vowels in an unstressed position. If he uses simplified system transcriptions, no big deal: it's widely accepted. Just don’t be surprised that you actually hear different sounds in the unstressed position.

2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants

For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake when characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dach’a] - country house,[t'l'iv'i´ z'r] - TV,[s’ino´ n’ima] - synonyms,[b'ir'o´ zy] - birch trees,[karz"i´ny] - baskets. All consonants in these examples come before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.

Strong positions on deafness of voicedness:

• before vowels: [there] - there,[ladies] - I'll give,
• before unpaired voiced [p], [p’], [l], [l’], [n], [n’], [m], [m’], [y’]: [dl’a] - For,[tl'a] - aphids,
• Before [in], [in’]: [own’] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.

Remember:

In a strong position, voiced and voiceless consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in deafness and voicedness:

• before paired ones according to deafness-voicing: [sl´ tk’ii] - sweet,[zu´ pk’i] - teeth.
• before voiceless unpaired ones: [aphva´ t] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
• at the end of a word: [zup] - tooth,[dup] - oak.
  

Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicing

In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become voiceless, i.e. are deafened, and the deaf are voiced, i.e. call out. Positional changes are observed only for paired consonants.

Stunning-voicing of consonants

Stunning voiced occurs in positions:

• before paired deaf people: [fsta´ in’it’] - V put,
• at the end of the word: [clat] - treasure.

Voicing of the deaf occurs at position:

• before paired voiced ones: [kaz’ba´] - to With bah´

Strong positions in terms of hardness and softness:

• before vowels: [mat’] - mother,[m’at’] - crush,
• at the end of the word: [won] - out there,[won’] - stench,
• before labiolabials: [b], [b'], [p], [p'], [m], [m'] and posterior linguals: [k], [k'], [g], [g' ], [x[, [x'] for sounds [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n ], [n'], [r], [r']: [sa´ n'k'i] - Sa´nki(gen. fall.), [s´ ank’i] - sled,[bun] - bun,[bu´ l’qt’] - gurgle,
• all positions for sounds [l] and [l’]: [forehead] - forehead,[pal'ba] - firing.

Remember:

In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.

• before soft [t’], [d’] for consonants [c], [z], which are necessarily softened: , [z’d’es’],
• before [h’] and [w’:] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [po´ n’ch’ik] - donut,[ka´ m’n’sh’:ik] - mason.

Remember:

In a number of positions today both soft and hard pronunciation is possible:

• before soft front-lingual [n’], [l’] for front-lingual consonants [c], [z]: snow -[s’n’ek] and , make angry -[z’l’it’] and [zl’it’]
• before soft front-lingual, [z’] for front-lingual [t], [d] - lift -[pad’n’a´ t’] and [padn’a´ t’] , take away -[at’n’a´ t’] and [atn’a´ t’]
• before soft front-lingual [t"], [d"], [s"], [z"] for front-lingual [n]: vi´ntik -[v’i´ n"t"ik] and [v’i´ nt’ik], pension -[p'e´ n's'ii'a] and [p'e´ n's'ii'a]
• before soft labials [v’], [f’], [b’], [p’], [m’] for labials: enter -[f"p"isa´ t’] and [fp"is´ at’], ri´ fme(Dan. fall.) - [r'i´ f"m"e] and [r'i´ fm"e]

Remember:

In all cases, positional softening of consonants is possible in a weak position.
It is a mistake to write a soft sign when softening consonants positionally.

Positional changes of consonants based on the method and place of formation

Naturally, in the school tradition it is not customary to present the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes that occur with them in all the details. But general patterns phonetics need to be learned. Without this, it is difficult to do phonetic analysis and complete test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of positionally determined changes in consonants based on the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid mistakes in phonetic analysis.

Assimilation of consonants

The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by similarity of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are nearby.

Learn the list:

[c] and [w] → [w:] - sew

[z] and [zh] → [zh:] - compress

[s] and [h’] - at the root of words → [sh’:] - happiness, score
- at the junction of morphemes and words → [w’:h’] - comb, dishonest, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced together as one word)

[s] and [w’:] → [w’:] - split

[t] and [c] - in verb forms→ [ts:] - smiles
-at the junction prefixes and roots → [tss] - sleep it off

[t] and [ts] → [ts:] - unhook

[t] and [h’] → [h’:] - report

[t] and [t] and [w’:]←[c] and [h’] - countdown

[d] and [w’:] ←[c] and [h’] - counting

Dissociation of consonants

Dissimilarity is a process of positional change, the opposite of assimilation.

[g] and [k’] → [h’k’] - easy

Simplifying consonant clusters

Learn the list:

vst - [stv]: hello, feel
zdn - [zn]: late
zdc - [sc] : by the reins
lnts - [nts]: Sun
NDC - [nc]: Dutch
ndsh - [ns:] landscape
NTG - [ng]: x-ray
rdc - [rts]: heart
rdch - [rh’]: little heart
stl - [sl’]: happy
stn - [dn]: local

Pronunciation of sound groups:

In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles there are letter combinations: wow, him. IN place G they are pronounced [in]: him, beautiful, blue.
Avoid reading letter by letter. Say the words him, blue, beautiful Right.

§10. Letters and sounds

Letters and sounds have different purposes and different nature. But these are comparable systems. Therefore, you need to know the types of ratios.

Types of relationships between letters and sounds:

1. The letter denotes a sound, for example, vowels after hard consonants and consonants before vowels: weather.
2. The letter has no own sound value, For example b And ъ: mouse
3. A letter represents two sounds, for example iotated vowels e, e, yu, i in positions:
   • the beginning of a word
   • after vowels,
   • after separators b And ъ.
4. A letter can denote a sound and the quality of the preceding sound, such as iotated vowels and And after soft consonants.
5. The letter may indicate the quality of the preceding sound, for example b in words shadow, stump, gunfire.
6. Two letters can represent one sound, usually a long one: sew, compress, rush
7. Three letters correspond to one sound: smile - shh -[ts:]

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. What determines the quality of a vowel sound?

   • From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
   • From the barrier formed by the speech organs at the moment of pronouncing a sound

2. What is reduction called?

   • pronouncing vowels under stress
   • pronouncing unstressed vowels
   • special pronunciation of consonants

3. For which sounds does the air stream encounter an obstacle on its path: a bow or a gap?

   • In vowels
   • In consonants

4. Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?

5. Are the vocal cords involved in pronouncing voiceless consonants?

6. How many pairs of consonants are formed according to deafness and voicedness?

7. How many consonants do not have a voiced-voiced pair?

8. How many pairs do Russian consonants form according to hardness and softness?

9. How many consonants do not have a hard-soft pair?

10. How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?

    • Special icons
    • Letter combinations

11. What is the name of the position of a sound in a stream of speech in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?

    • Strong position
    • Weak position

12. What sounds have strong and weak positions?

    • In vowels
    • In consonants
    • For everyone: both vowels and consonants

Correct answers:

1. From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
2. pronouncing unstressed vowels
3. In consonants
4. Letter combinations
5. Strong position
6. For everyone: both vowels and consonants