Criticism of thinking. Critical perception

Critical perception

All people tend to criticize. However, this property is especially pronounced if a person’s outer corner of the eye is lower than the inner one. People with a heightened critical perception tend to see every flaw and wonder why others don't notice it. Nothing irritates them more than carelessness and inattention. These people are perfectionists. They not only engage in self-improvement, but also expect this from family members and their employees. In the family circle, excessive criticism can have serious influence on children whose parents will most likely never be satisfied with the achievements of their children. For them, any result is not good enough. If external corners eyes are raised upward, then a person is more likely to notice what has been achieved than what has been done wrong. Such people are less critical.

The outer corner of the eye is lower than the inner - strong critical perception

The outer corner of the eye is higher than the inner corner - poor critical perception

Michael's father, prone to criticism, never praised his son. No matter how hard Michael tried, he could not live up to his parent's expectations. The father believed that his son would never achieve success, and somehow told him about this. When Michael later complained to his father about his constant criticism, about the fact that his father never allowed him to finish, the answer was: “Your grandfather was a scumbag, therefore I am a scumbag.” He believed that this justified his attitude towards his son. Later, Michael decided to sign up for training. This greatly helped him cope with problems in his relationship with his father. Once again, when Michael met with him, he refused to get into an unpleasant argument. And the situation changed for the better: despite his father’s nagging and attacks, Michael managed to distance himself from offensive phrases and avoided a quarrel.

Kate was brought up strictly. At home, she walked almost on tiptoes to avoid criticism from her parents, which brought her to tears. It was difficult for her at times, but she didn't want her parents to notice her weakness. She will become a wonderful student and straight A student, Kate thought, her parents would truly love her. Therefore, at school she was in constant voltage, confident that she can’t get grades lower than an A.

When Kate notices mistakes in others, she feels superior. For example, she cannot stand amateur musicians and cannot stand unprofessionalism. Because of her sense of intellectual superiority, people prefer to keep their distance from her.

Bob, a true perfectionist, owns a construction company. Previously, he always lashed out at his subordinates if they did not notice mistakes in their work. He was indignant: “What happened to you? Don’t you see the mistake?”

This did not at all improve the morale of his workers. However, as soon as he realized his gift for noticing mistakes where others do not see them, he stopped criticizing everyone and everything and began to point out only significant shortcomings. He also realized that his three marriages had failed, most likely due to constant criticism: he was never happy with his wives, and this ultimately destroyed their relationships.

Ken, a 40-year-old man, sent me a photo of himself for me to analyze. I immediately noticed facial features that indicated a tendency towards strong critical perception. Apparently, his parents also had this feature. Most likely, it was they who broke his spirit. Ken had a rounded outer edge of his ear, indicating congenital musical abilities. I suggested that Ken take up music. It turned out that when he was a child, his parents believed that he could not have any future in music. Despite their negative opinion, he still went to music school Los Angeles, which brought parents into indescribable anger. Unable to withstand the pressure of adults, he was soon forced to leave school. Now, already in mature age, he returned to music and plays in a local band.

If you are naturally inclined to criticize everything, try to see the good first, and remember that there is no worse critic than yourself. If you are never satisfied with anything, how can you help yourself, much less your family and employees, develop? Better praise them for what they did, find positive aspects, and then instead of the usual furious criticism, calmly explain what still needs to be done. Try to put yourself in the shoes of the people being criticized.

If you notice errors or shortcomings, give polite advice: “You have done great job, but there are a few things that could be changed. May I make my proposal?"

Criticizing your colleagues too often will only dampen your passion for work and hurt their feelings. If you are a parent who has this trait, try to encourage your child more often. Be gentler in everything.

If you often do not notice errors, be prepared for possible complaints. Listen to the opinions of competent people.

Remember that your criticism has great influence per child. Imagine how your relationship would change if you learned to control yourself? If your children have inherited your passion for criticizing, teach them to use it to positive goals; emphasize that this is a gift and not a curse. As one woman said, she simply forgets about her love of criticizing when she doesn’t need it. Of course, in words everything is simpler. In practice, for example, teachers who are prone to criticism should develop tolerance and gentleness towards their students so as not to turn learning into a test.

Professions

Critical thinkers make excellent editors, camera operators, surgeons, and any other job that requires precision. Wouldn't you want people like that flying a plane or fixing your car? They make good literary, music and film critics, as well as art critics.

Sandra believed that her mother, always extremely critical, did not love her or did not even want her to be born. Only when she reached the age of thirty did she realize that all these years her mother had loved her and cared for her. Her only regret was that it took her 30 years to realize this.

If you don't tend to criticize, you need to learn more about the shortcomings in your work from those who tend to notice mistakes. It is better to check several times that you have not missed any important fact.

Celebrities. Strong critical perception

Hugh Grant, Mikhail Gorbachev, John Ashcroft, J. Rowling.

From the book Philosophical tales for those pondering life or a cheerful book about freedom and morality author Kozlov Nikolay Ivanovich

Anti-Kozlov, or Critical Rumbling It would be a stretch to say that my views are always received with enthusiasm. Thank God there is more normal people who have a normal, that is, different from mine, opinion and express it. Including in writing. Here

From the book I'm Right - You're Wrong by Bono Edward de

Critical Application - I used to be afraid to talk to you, you seemed very smart to me... - And now? - And now I’m not afraid. This is how reader letters bring a lot of joy to the author, especially if he has a developed sense of humor. As I feel from letters, many

From the book Teach Yourself to Think [Tutorial for Thinking Development] by Bono Edward de

Critical thinking Anyone who allows logical errors in their thinking, they are mistaken for a bad thinker, but they hardly pay attention to shortcomings of perception at all, and if they do, they treat them much more tolerantly. In this regard, if we eliminate all

From the book Psychology: lecture notes author Bogachkina Natalia Alexandrovna

PERCEPTION Perception is an extremely important part of thinking. For the most part, we ignore this important part. thought process for a number of reasons: 1. We have become so fixated on authenticity and truthfulness that we have dismissed perception as subjective and intractable.

From the book Motivation and Personality author Maslow Abraham Harold

3. Perception 1. The concept of perception. Types of perception.2. Properties of perception.1. Man learning the world around us, perceives not individual properties (sensations), but the object as a whole, i.e. human brain, highlighting the properties of objects and phenomena, immediately combines them into

From the book Elements practical psychology author Granovskaya Rada Mikhailovna

Perception The study of perception is largely limited to the study of errors, distortions, illusions, etc. Wertheimer called this the study of psychological blindness. Why not bring into this study questions of intuition, the subconscious, the unconscious and

From the book 10 stupidest mistakes people make by Freeman Arthur

Perception Goodbye, said the Fox. - Here is my secret, it is very simple: only the heart is vigilant, the most important things cannot be seen with the eyes.

From the book Psychology of Critical Thinking by Halpern Diana

Critical attitude towards criticism As we get older, we begin to understand - partly on own experience and observations, partly thanks to the advice of those near and far, that not all critics are wise and fair and that even those whom we love and who love us are not always

From the book Thinking and Speech (collection) author Vygotsky Lev Semenovich

Installation on critical thinking and readiness for it Our greatness is in thought. Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) You cannot learn to think better simply by reading books. An essential component of critical thinking is developing the mindset to think critically and

From the book Cheat Sheet on General Psychology author Voitina Yulia Mikhailovna

Chapter Two The problem of the child’s speech and thinking in the teachings of J. Piaget Critical research I Piaget’s research constituted an entire era in the development of the doctrine of the child’s speech and thinking, his logic and worldview. They are marked with historical significance. Piaget was the first to use

From the book Pseudoscience and paranormal phenomena [Critical view] by Jonathan Smith

38. PERCEPTION OF TIME. PERCEPTION OF MOTION Perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena and events. Time intervals are determined by the rhythmic processes occurring in the human body. Rhythm in the work of the heart, rhythmic breathing,

From the book All types of manipulations and methods of neutralizing them author Bolshakova Larisa

From the book Fundamentals of Psychology author Ovsyannikova Elena Alexandrovna

How to train critical thinking It has been mentioned many times above that in order to successfully resist manipulators, you need to use critical thinking. Critical thinking is usually understood as the analysis of data in order to find out how applicable it is, highlighting

From the book Humor as a way of influence author Sheinov Viktor Pavlovich

4.3. Perception The concept of perception. In progress cognitive activity people rarely deal with individual properties objects and phenomena. Usually the subject appears collectively various properties and parts. Color, shape, size, smell, sounds made, weight

From the book Phenomenal Intelligence. The art of thinking effectively author Sheremetyev Konstantin

Make a critical remark Morals are corrected by laughter. O. Balzac If everyone tells you “no,” look for the reason. Blonde woman in a foreign car in a car service center. The mechanic asks: “And what do you have, beauty?” “Yes, it twitches... and stalls... I visited seven car service stations - and everywhere

From the author's book

Critical Reading When gathering facts, read books, websites, or newspapers very carefully. People tend to have a completely uncritical attitude towards the written word. Propaganda shamelessly takes advantage of this. Most publications on political or economic topics

In the 20th century, critical thinking gained particular popularity as postmodernism and constructivism, especially due to its radical point of view. Large number people living on the planet have weaned themselves from choosing and making decisions, relying on the truth, reliability and reality of what is happening. The fact that a person does not have the ability to think critically immediately deprives him own character and personality in psychology.

A person ceases to independently navigate what he likes, what kind of music, politics, worldviews attracts him, and he also ceases to realize what he wants to do for himself. If someone has his own point of view and his preferences, he rarely observes them and sticks to them: critical thinking in our society is itself subject to great criticism and controversy among others. “Be tolerant!”, “How can you speak negatively about other people’s musical preferences?”, “You criticize this person, but what have you achieved yourself?”

Such words can immediately show us a person who is too pliable, unenthusiastic, empty, and also overly trusting. If you think that reality is some kind of burden that can put pressure on the consciousness of the observer, then you can notice that people who are unable to think critically show us complete spiritual as well as mental weakness, since they cannot withstand some pressure and would prefer to be morally destroyed.

Definition of critical thinking, what does it mean

Non-critical people

Unfortunately, today even people who are not stupid, but even educated, are unable to think critically (partially or completely). And about material and political sphere It's better not to say at all: opinion leaders and the authorities always prefer to have obedient and loyal people with them who trust their every word. It’s not just that now a complete rejection of a personal position and attempts to please the dominant link in everything is an indispensable factor in corporate institutions. People who have own opinion, risk being misunderstood and rejected different sides, and not so long ago, speaking against the opinion of the authorities was punishable by exile and even death.

Of course, if everything were so simple, then the human race would have been destroyed many years ago. There are people who understand that if you receive finance and material goods in exchange for your life position, then the meaning of life simply disappears, and the person himself becomes a simple consumer of goods. Some of these people, without thinking twice, commit suicide (there are many articles about the rich successful people who unexpectedly committed suicide, including some celebrities).

Others, more strong in character and spirit, decide to move on and try to deal with these problems. In the end, such people truly achieve significant successes- develop their level critical thinking, do not become some kind of outcasts or misunderstood by society. These individuals are capable of promoting human race forward, commit general development, make new discoveries and create new devices and equipment, they should receive the main recognition and special authority.

What does critical thinking mean and how to develop it?

We've all heard expressions such as derogatory criticism, criticize, critical situation. Thus, many assume that critical thinking means eternal dissatisfaction with everything, condemnation, and also skepticism. This is completely untrue. Of course, the presence of mistrust and skepticism is one of the main parts of critical thinking, but its main principles are not built on this. This thinking, mainly consists of thoughtful, carefully tested conclusions and decisions, which are supported by reliable facts and arguments, preferably of a material type, built on strict logic, consistent judgments and control of one’s emotions and feelings about the world around us.
A person who is capable thinks critically, will never blindly obey and do everything he is told. It is difficult to get him out of control of his emotions and feelings, as well as to deceive and outwit him in any way. He does not fully believe in any belief and in his choices and actions is guided only by his processed and received information. It is for this reason that such people tend to make decisions only for themselves and never allow rash actions; they can always answer for their actions.

Criticism of yourself

Another factor in the development of critical thinking is the ability to think critically about oneself. Such a person can independently understand his real abilities, perceives well and carefully eliminates shortcomings and mistakes. If a person does not analyze his behavior and does not criticize himself, then this characterizes him as mentally unhealthy person, for example, patients with schizophrenia are unable to distinguish between hallucinations and strange thoughts from the real-time state. Adventurism, excessive fantasies - all this can also be a factor in a painful lack of self-criticism.

How to develop critical thinking?

Critical thinking seems to us a process that seems easy and even quite primitive: there is an unambiguous decision - truth or lie, which should be deduced; there are initial information and actions, consequences and reasoning made from them, the processing of these judgments will be based on simple logic. With such principles, critical thinking is more reminiscent of the logic of some kind of robot or machine. But we can often notice how critical thinking becomes just this action for some people, and very often these people themselves get confused in their conclusions.

This probably happens because of the adult stage of life: here you need to reason, think and look for the right solution yourself, and not every person is ready for this. Most people choose the tactics of big children - they always rely on the principles that have been created diverse groups: political, religious, traditions, canons and simply more authoritative people. And they prefer to follow them because it is easier.

Teaching Critical Learning

Useful to analyze and make a detailed list of all possible outcomes from a certain situation. Presentation on a visual background will greatly simplify this task. You can depict special diagrams, diagrams, and also special tables. Here you can use the methods of mathematical disciplines - statistics, as well as logic. It is worth remembering that mathematics is the most exact science among others.

The best method development of critical thinking in oneself will adhere to a special scheme: the solution to the problem facing you occurs through five actions - preparation, familiarization and analysis of the problem, development the right decision, selection of the most accurate result, as well as evaluation final result the work done. All people who have received this method are familiar with this method. higher education or participated in any research. So, this method is the main one for writing theses, dissertations, coursework and other documents of this type. A structured and well-thought-out plan can help a person quickly and step-by-step solve any difficult issue.

"All that glitters is not gold." Perhaps it is this saying that best answers the question of what critical thinking is and most fully reveals the essence of this unique ability person.

The world is not black and white. Any information requires verification (see). Everyone has the right to disagree with ready-made judgments. The surrounding reality is better known in comparison various phenomena. A person begins to comprehend these simple truths from childhood or a little later. But sometimes they remain unknown to him. Then they will say about a person that his thinking is captive of other people’s judgments, external stereotypes, that is, he is not able to think critically.

What is critical thinking

“I think, therefore I exist,” said Descartes. “I think critically, which means I am a human being” - this is what everyone who considers himself a being should ideally say higher intelligence(). Critical thinking is the ability to:

analyze;
compare;
draw conclusions;
interpret;
give personal assessment;
compare other people's assessments;
doubt;
reason.

Find out in everyday life: compilation psychological portrait person.

Do you know the types of attention?

In other words, this amazing ability a person to be absolutely free in his thoughts. And this gives him bonuses:

knows how to defend his position in disputes (see);
no one can force their opinion;
can formulate a question, problem or task very clearly;
momentary formal conventions are unknown;
assessments are free from bias.

If you also want your mind to obey only your will, but understand that this is not happening yet, then you need to learn techniques that help develop critical thinking.

Why does a person need to be able to think critically?

Thinking critically is a good ability. But not everyone understands why it is needed. Meanwhile, the better this skill is developed in a person, the more advantages he has over others:

it is easier for him to find his place in life: a person can adequately assess his talents, that is, he will quickly find his professional happiness and achieve success in life;
other people will be drawn to him because it is pleasant to have a dialogue with him, since he does not consider it necessary to dominate at any cost;
he is confident in himself because he knows how to set priorities correctly and is able to be responsible for his personal choices;
such a person has the ability to forecast, comparing facts, analyzing events, and drawing abstract conclusions (see) on the topic of possible developments of events.

Critical thinking is the highest level of thinking as such. Therefore, if a person claims to be civilized and modern, he is simply obliged to master this not so tricky wisdom - the method of critical thinking. Otherwise, he risks remaining dissatisfied with his life in particular and the world around him in general. Down with standards - this should be the motto of a truly thinking person.

How to develop critical thinking in children

The technology for developing critical thinking begins to be mastered by people as early as school age. Humanitarian subjects play a big role in this: literature, history, social studies. Teachers have many techniques at their disposal:

information analysis – highlighting the most important points in a written or heard text;
discussions on a given topic (for example, what guided historical character, making a decision);
modeling situations - a game with subjunctive mood on the topic “what would happen if...”, for example, how events would develop in Russia if in Civil War Whites won;
building associative and logical chains - supplement literary portrait or create the wardrobe of a historical character;
projection of abstract knowledge onto concrete life situation: what would you do in the place of some literary heroes;

Note to parents: exercises for the development of visual memory.

Do you know and determine whether you have a rich imagination?

Learn and verbal abilities.

If we are talking not about the content of the lesson, but about its formal side, then the following techniques can be used:

self-assessment of knowledge - when the student is asked to evaluate himself own work, but certainly with justification;
independent choice of homework;
freedom in determining the time limits that the child himself sets for completing the task.

How before parents and teachers begin to develop the child’s ability to think critically, the more chances he has to grow up to be an adequate and intellectually sane person.

How to develop critical thinking in adults

How to develop critical thinking in an adult is a more difficult task. How older man, the less flexible he is emotionally, psychologically, and intellectually. But even absolutely hopeless conservatives have a chance for freedom of thought.

So, what techniques do psychologists offer to older people so that they can train their minds to be critical and independent:

Get an organizer and write down literally every step, not before, but after your day. Nothing helps to adequately evaluate your life, useful or useless time, as clear evidence that this day is lived in vain and aimlessly.
Keep a diary where you literally write down day by day what problems need to be solved tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, in a month, and so on. This way you will streamline your life and get rid of unnecessary worries.
Read fiction or non-fiction. It develops abstract thinking. In addition, remember and apply to yourself the techniques that literature and history teachers use at school.
Time spent on social networks or watching TV should be minimized or abandoned altogether, so as not to clog your brain with other people’s ready-made conclusions, or, alternatively, question everything you hear and read.

Learn not to give in public opinion, try to look at any event from the point of view of all its participants. In the end, try to imagine yourself in the role of Sherlock Holmes or Dr. House - someone else, and you can’t blame them for the lack of critical thinking.

Definition

IN in the narrow sense critical thinking means “evaluating statements correctly.” Also characterized as "thinking about thinking". One of the common definitions is “intelligent, reflective thinking aimed at deciding what to trust and what to do.” A more detailed definition is “an intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully analyzing, conceptualizing, applying, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information obtained or generated by observation, experience, reflection, or communication, as a guide for belief and action.”

She additionally points out that critical thinking is characterized by the construction of logical inferences, the creation of mutually consistent logical models and making informed decisions regarding whether to reject a judgment, agree with it, or temporarily postpone its consideration. All these definitions imply mental activity, which should be aimed at solving a specific cognitive task.

Compound

The set of key skills required for critical thinking includes observation, interpretation, analysis, drawing conclusions, and the ability to make evaluations. Critical thinking applies logic and also relies on metaknowledge and broad criteria of intelligence such as clarity, credibility, accuracy, significance, depth, scope, and fairness. Emotionality, creative imagination, value attitudes are also components critical thinking. :40

Literature

Elliott C., Turnbull S..- Routledge, 2005.- 210 pp.- ISBN 0415329175; ISBN 978-0415329170
Halpern D. Psychology of critical thinking .- St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.- 512c. ISBN 5-314-00122-5, ISBN 9785314001226
Turchin V.F. Phenomenon of science. A cybernetic approach to evolution. - Ed. 2nd - M.: ETS Dictionary Publishing House. - 2000. - 368 p.
King S.A. On the classification of features of critical thinking. Questions of Psychology, 1981, No. 4, pp. 108-112
Ivunina E. E. On different approaches to the concept of “critical thinking” // Young scientist. - 2009. - No. 11. - pp. 170-174.
Butenko A.V., Khodos E.A. Educational method. allowance. M.: Miros, 2002. – 176 p.

Critical Thinking: Bibliography

Notes

External sources

“Foundation for Critical Thinking” - Foundation for Critical Thinking, California, USA, translations of materials on critical thinking on the website of E. N. Volkov

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

See what “Critical thinking” is in other dictionaries:

CRITICAL THINKING- rational, reflective thinking aimed at deciding what to believe or what action to take. With this understanding, critical thinking includes both abilities (skills) and predispositions (inclinations) ... Vocational education. Dictionary

critical thinking- kritinis mąstymas statusas T sritis švietimas apibrėžtis Savarankiško protavimo būdas, kai siekiama tiksliai, argumentuotai, atsižvelgiant į ankstesnę patirtį ir esamas sąlygas rasti naują objektyvią tiesą. Jo pradininku laikomas XVIII a.… … Enciklopedinis edukologijos žodynas

Critical thinking- thinking aimed at identifying shortcomings in the judgments of other people. Critical thinking is a quality of thinking that allows for a strict assessment of the results of mental activity, finding strengths and weaknesses, to prove... ... Dictionary-reference book on philosophy for students of medical, pediatric and dental faculties

CRITICAL THINKING- See thinking, critical...

CRITICAL THINKING- the ability to analyze information from a logical standpoint, the ability to make informed judgments, decisions and apply the results obtained to both standard and non-standard situations, questions and problems. This process is characterized by openness... ... Pedagogical dictionary

THINKING, CRITICAL- A cognitive strategy consisting largely of continuous testing and testing possible solutions regarding how to do a certain job. Critical thinking is often contrasted creative thinking(cm.… … Dictionary in psychology

THINKING CRITICALLY- the ability to analyze information from a logical standpoint, the ability to make informed judgments, decisions and apply the results obtained to both standard and non-standard situations, questions and problems; formation of critical thinking -... ... Modern educational process: basic concepts and terms

Thinking critically- (Greek kritike the art of disassembling, judging) a cognitive strategy that largely consists of continuously checking and testing the adequacy of possible solutions regarding how to perform a certain job. Focused on... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary in psychology and pedagogy

Mental development material- The mental material of knowledge is images of objects or actions. The mental material of development is mental operations. These operations are carried out in mental processes. That's why mental development students assumes... ... Encyclopedia of educational technologies

Wikipedia has articles about other people with this surname, see Volkov. Evgeny Novomirovich Volkov ... Wikipedia

Books

A Guide to Lies. Critical thinking in the era of post-truth, Daniel Levitin. About the Book An accessible, example-rich guide to critical thinking that's more relevant than ever. This is a book about how to recognize problems using the facts you...

Psychoanalyst, art therapist.

"Criticism is the study and testing of propositions of any kind that are proposed for acceptance, in order to find out whether they are true or not. Critical thinking is the most important condition human well-being, this must be taught."

William Graham Sumner

Critical thinking is a cognitive strategy that consists largely of continually checking and testing possible solutions about how to do a particular job. Critical thinking is often contrasted with creative thinking, which can be related to divergent thinking, where components of consciousness and associations are used to create them. new option solving the problem.

The difference is that divergent thinking leads to new insights and solutions, while critical thinking has the function of testing existing ideas and solutions for flaws or errors.

Critical thinking theory

It is believed that the term "critical thinking" was first used in comprehensive work about the "importance" curriculum on Mathematics and the Role of Precision in Thinking" by Clark and Reeve (1928). It had not previously been used in scientific field and the identical concept was reflective thinking.

The main prerequisite for the emergence of the theory of critical thinking in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century should be considered social tension and instability associated with the revolution, the Great Depression, and the global economic crisis. These aspects of life have prompted philosophers and sociologists to search for ideas that would transform philosophy into an actionable, pragmatic process that helps people survive in a radically changing world.

One of the main reasons for the emergence of the theory of critical thinking was the crisis in education and its reforms. Thus, questions of critical thinking ceased to be a subject of interest exclusively for philosophy.

Analytical philosophy of education had important in the formation and development of the theory of the formation of critical thinking.

One of the first was the American educator and philosopher John Dewey, who drew parallels between learning conditions, interaction and reflective thinking, and also proposed the development of reflective (critical) thinking as one of the most important goals of learning in the educational system.

Sociologist and philosopher W. Sumner pointed to the deep need for critical thinking in life, in education and the need to teach critical thinking.

The development of important methodological aspects of organizing the formation of critical thinking skills is the subject of the work of American teachers who, under the influence of postmodern thinking, started talking about the need to make changes not only in educational system in general, but also the process of developing and implementing new theories and teaching methods. They emphasized that such approaches can interest students in the learning process, intensify their work to achieve their own educational goals, provide the opportunity to independently monitor and evaluate each other’s level of knowledge, and develop critical and creative thinking skills.

History of critical thinking

So, in the early 1960s. appears in the USA and England analytical philosophy education, the origins of which were the systems of German idealism early XIX century.

After Socrates, Kant is the second significant figure in the history of philosophy, to whom all prominent representatives of critical rationalism are indebted, despite their critical attitude towards his teaching. Immanuel Kant's critical rationalism includes questions of the theory of knowledge in the spheres of enlightenment, epistemology (epistemology), religion: “No matter where you know about God... only you can judge whether to believe in Him and whether to worship Him.”

In his teachings about space and time, Kant discovers that knowledge consists of analytical (explanatory) and synthetic (expanding) judgments, which seem to reject the rationalistic doctrine of evidence, and therefore he demands that synthetic judgments be justified a priori in the same way as empirical ones .

Kant's critical apriorism, starting from Hume's skepticism associated with the impossibility of proving the validity of the principle of induction, generalizes the "Humean problem" to the questions: how is a science possible, consisting of synthetic judgments "a priori"? How is it possible to justify synthetic judgments of the “a priori” kind?

Karl Popper - Austrian and British sociologist, one of the most influential philosophers of science of the 20th century, being a follower of the philosophy of I. Kant, played important role in the history of the development of critical thinking. He can rightfully be considered the founder philosophical concept critical rationalism. He described his position as follows: “I may be wrong, and you may be right... Let us make an effort, and we may get closer to the truth.”

Popper is known for his works on the philosophy of science, social and political philosophy, in which he criticized classical concept scientific method. He defended the principles of democracy, social criticism and proposed to adhere to them in order to make prosperity possible open society.

In his adherence to the Enlightenment tradition, Popper associated the Enlightenment with a belief in reason and truth, and in this sense he called himself a rationalist. “However,” Popper noted, “this does not mean that I believe in the omnipotence of human mind...The mind can play human life only a very modest role. It plays the role of ... critical discussion." The peculiarity of the Enlightenment tradition, according to Popper, is a certain intellectual attitude that opposes such Enlightenment rationalistic concepts that try to give reason and the knowledge produced on its basis a special authority. "There is a significant difference between intellectual modesty and intellectual conceit (insolence), - Popper explains the essence of this confrontation.

Intellectual modesty forms the ethical basis of the concept of critical rationality, which Popper calls “Socratic reason,” in which critical rationalism does not promote the omnipotence of reason and thereby a fanatical belief in it, not the “terror of rationalism” or an uncritical belief in the omnipotence of science. His concept of reason refers to the Socratic point of view on the limitations and fallibility of everything human knowledge, and therefore does not recognize any reference point in the process of cognition or the final authority in justification that would guarantee the absoluteness of truth.

For Popper, a rationalist is a person who is willing to learn from others by allowing them to criticize his ideas and by criticizing the ideas of others.

Psychology, fundamentals of critical thinking

Psychology of Critical Thinking– the totality of psychological sciences, cognitive operations and processes. As a cognitive and intellectual activity, critical thinking is based on rules and techniques formal logic, cognitive psychology, psychology of creativity, theory of decision making and practice of argumentation, rhetoric. This type of thinking is manifested in the ability to foresee, diagnose the possible course of future events, through analysis and logic, strengthen the positive and prevent negative consequences of decisions made and actions taken. Methodological doubt (what is logically possible to doubt), working with concepts and questions, clear and reasonable expression of thoughts, searching for errors and determining the degree of risk various situations- these are all the basics operating system critical thinking. The main means here is the connection between thinking and knowledge.

Psychologist Diana Halper, for example, notes in her book The Psychology of Critical Thinking:

We are talking about a type of thinking that allows you to use previously acquired knowledge to create new ones. Everything that people know - all existing knowledge - was created by someone. Created in to a greater extent, using a purposeful course of reasoning with evaluative components - the main factors of critical thinking.

“What if?...” is the basic question of critical thinking. It means developing a point of view on a certain issue and the ability to defend this point of view with logical arguments. This type of thinking requires attention to the opponent’s arguments and their logical comprehension.