Monetary systems, like money itself, are not invented. Having formed spontaneously in ancient times in some countries, they subsequently develop according to the principle of continuity. However, establishing an exact genealogy and relationship is sometimes impossible. This is explained by the fact that monetary systems developed, as a rule, without clear legislative acts, gradually; coinage in ancient times was extremely decentralized: Greece, Rome (and subsequently Italy), later - Rus' XI-XIII centuries, Germany in the Middle Ages, France, etc.; There are many “blank spots” in the archaeological material that has come down to us, and the Middle Ages generally did not know stable units of weight in time and space; moreover, there are no dates on medieval coins; the time of their issue can only be judged approximately.
Consider the development of money from the fall of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. The Middle Ages was a centuries-long period of the formation and decomposition of feudalism (V-XVII centuries). The transition to feudalism was associated with the subordination of peasants to large landowners, who turned the land into their monopoly property. Feudalism marked progress in social development. The era of feudalism was characterized by the flourishing of small commodity production in cities. As a result, agrarian relations changed. The majority of peasants were not the owners of the land they cultivated. They paid rent or tax to the landowner. Feudal rent existed in three forms: labor (corvée), food (in-kind rent) and money.
With development commodity-money relations Cash rent acquired predominant importance; landowners distributed land to peasants as holdings, which contributed to the growth of peasant labor productivity and the stratification of the peasantry into those who knew how and loved to work and bare labor.
During the Middle Ages, ethnic communities changed radically and state entities. Instead of primitive barbarian states and isolated lordships, large centralized states, culture has developed incomparably.
The development of industry by the 15th century made it possible to increase the extraction of minerals, primarily silver and gold. Silver in large quantities was mined by Germany (Saxony, later Schneeberg), also a lot noble metals were extracted from the depths of the Czech Republic (Tabor, Salzburg, Příbrama, Kuttenberg), Hungary (Kremnitz, Schemnitz), and Transylvania was a place of gold mining even under the Romans.
Coinage remained in the hands of wealthy landowners as well as monasteries. At that time it was a very labor-intensive process. All work - 12 operations in total - was done manually until the 16th century. The most important of them:
Melting metal and turning it into ingots (forgings)
Metal flattening (sheet cutting)
Cutting the sheet into rectangular pieces of the required weight
Rounding this piece and turning it into a coin circle
Stamping (produced with two stamps on each side of the coin
In France, since the time of Philip IV, lead samples of coin stamps began to be sent to coin establishments.
Regarding the fineness of the coin, it is worth noting the difference between France, where the custom of issuing low-grade coins was widespread already at the beginning of the 10th century, and Germany, where the low-grade silver coin appears later and where the addition of a ligature to silver did not become a universal phenomenon.
The private owner of the metal was kept from investing in the coin of the latter big losses metal from waste, payment of minting costs and a special coin duty (seigneurage), as well as reluctance to disclose the extent of their wealth. Quite a lot of gold and silver ended up in the hands of the emerging bourgeoisie, which, as a rule, were stored in bullion. The shape and weight of the ingots were different. The convenience of bullion was in transportation, in carrying out large transactions when coins were accepted by weight, and in the possibility of minting into local coins. The division of labor between bars and coins becomes clear.
V-VI centuries - centuries of increased influx of gold into the state of the Franks. This was mainly war booty - Roman gold. But then, gradually, the Roman coin went out of circulation due to abrasion and damage, and a silver coin began to be minted, and then its own gold coin. Monetary system Frankish state based on the Roman denarius. Large sums of money were counted in livres (pounds), sous (solids), deniers (denarii). The livre was always counted as 20 sous, and the sous as 12 denier.
Louis IX put forward an enlarged silver coin of 12 denarii, because... the denarius itself became worthless. This coin was a solidus, which until then had only played the role of a counting unit. The new coin was called "gro". The appearance of the gro lays the foundation for a developed monetary system: instead of “one-coin circulation,” “two-coin circulation” appeared. The minting of first enlarged silver (gro) and then gold coins was declared the privilege of the king, but some provinces continued to mint their own coins.
Philip IV achieved great success in the fight against feudal coinage. However, after his death, feudal coinage is resumed, and Louis X is forced to recognize and legislate the right of many feudal lords to mint coins, albeit only good-quality ones.
The monetary unit "franc" appeared at the beginning Hundred Years' War, which began in 1337. Frank was enlarged monetary unit and was intended for ransom from captivity of King John the Good. IN early XVI century, a truly large coin appears, and not an enlarged one. Silver ceases to play the role of a measure of value; this function passes to gold. The very development of gold monometallism is closely connected with the early emergence of capitalist relations in Italy and the Netherlands.
The name "denarius" is replaced by the names "penny" and "pfenning" in England and Germany, respectively. Monetary circulation in England dates back to the times of Roman rule. But a locally minted coin, similar to the Greek one, circulated in Britain even before their conquest by the Romans, who introduced their own coin here, which circulated even after the Romans left.
In the second half of the 5th and early 6th centuries, the Angles and Saxons appeared on the island and founded several kingdoms. During this period, kings minted small silver coins, which were later replaced by the Frankish-style denarius. Here they almost immediately receive the name penny. The denarius dominated in England until the 12th century; other coins were not minted at all. In the 13th century English penny becomes internationally recognized.
England is characterized by the concentration of coinage in the hands of kings already at a time when in the rest of Europe many feudal lords still had the rights to issue. Enlarged silver coins in England began to be minted after 1279, when this was entrusted to a master invited from France. He was commissioned to mint "big pennies" weighing 96 Tower grains. This four penny coin was called the groat.
The Hundred Years' War also affected the fate of the grotto. In 1351 its weight was reduced, as was the weight of the penny. From a pound of standard silver, 75 grots or 300 pennies were minted, whereas previously only 240 pennies were minted.
The first minting of gold coins took place in England under Henry III in 1257. The minting of gold coins was widely developed by the 14th century. A "gold penny" weighed two silver pennies.
The development of commodity-money relations in Germany was more primitive than in France and England. The kings did not claim a monopoly in coinage. In Germany, the denarius was also replaced by an enlarged silver coin of the gro type, and then by a gold coin.
The thick Saint Louis denarius soon after its introduction became a popular coin for international payments. Under the name "turnose" it becomes a contractual monetary unit in German cities.
In various cities of Germany, the Netherlands, England, Poland and Lithuania, the minting of enlarged coins, increasingly reminiscent of the tournose, spread.
The first gold coinage was under Frederick II, who issued a well-designed gold coin in 1231. But mass minting of gold in Germany began only in the 14th century.
The appearance of gold coinage meant, in essence, a new stage in the history of European monetary circulation. This was truly the beginning of the era of coinage. At the same time, attempts are made to produce an enlarged silver coin close to the solid. The latter originated as penny coins in France and Italy, then spreading throughout Europe.
Srebrenik (serebrenik) - the first silver coin Ancient Rus'. Silver was used for minting arab coins. The coin was minted in Kyiv by Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, in Novgorod by Yaroslav the Wise. Another Old Russian coin was the zlatnik (zolotnik) - the first gold coin in Rus', equal in weight to the Byzantine solidus (4.2 g). This ancient Russian coin with a Slavic inscription, a portrait of the prince (Vladimir Svyatoslavovich) and the family coat of arms of the Rurikovichs did not play a special role in trade, but rather served as a symbol of the strength of the state. It was minted, like silver, in the 10th-11th centuries.
In the monetary circulation of Ancient Rus', ingots played a more significant role than in the West, where the circulation of ingots encountered opposition from the feudal lords, who had the right to mint coins and considered every ingot as a material for minting.
basis monetary system Ancient Rus' became the hryvnia, a unit of weight, an ancient Slavic currency used to measure gold and silver. Gold, silver, bronze hryvnias, used by women as decoration in the form of a hoop, worn around the neck (on the “back of the neck” - hence the name) subsequently became the main monetary unit of Rus').
The period from the 12th to the 14th centuries went down in the history of Russia as “without coins”. Tatar coins appear in the northeast of Rus'.
The unification of Russian coins was carried out by Elena Glinskaya, regent under the young Ivan IV in 1534. Since then, one national silver coin has been minted, twice as heavy as money - Novgorod, which later received the name kopek after the image of a horseman with a spear on it; Denga Moscow or Moskovka, or simply denga, which was also called “saber” or “sword” after the horseman with a saber depicted on it; polushka (half money), equal to half money and a quarter of Novgorod. 300 novgorodki weighing 0.68g, or 600 money weighing 0.34g, were minted from silver hryvnia. Thus, since 1534, 100 novgorodok were equal to 1 ruble. The history of the ruble is also interesting. This name was given to the Novgorod hryvnia (a long silver stick weighing 204 g).
Paper banknotes are not full-fledged money, but only their signs. They were first issued in the 7th century in China in large denomination notes to replace the inconvenient full-fledged copper money. And as long as the bills could be freely exchanged for full-fledged money, they circulated successfully. Later, in the 13th century, paper money was issued in Persia, and in the 14th century - in Japan.
In the XII-XV centuries. Merchants, for the convenience of trade, create banks to replace cash payments through them with non-cash, more convenient and safe ones. But wide opportunities for the development of paper money are created only by capitalism with its developed credit system.
1. The two-way nature of the learning process. The learning process is a type human activity who wears bilateral character. This process necessarily involves the interaction of a teacher and students (one or a group) of students, taking place under certain conditions (material, organizational, pedagogical, psychological, aesthetic, etc.). The learning process consists of two interrelated processes - teaching and learning. Learning process / \ Teaching process Learning process (teacher activity) (activity of a student or group of students) Learning is impossible without simultaneous active work teacher and students, without their active didactic interaction. No matter how actively the teacher strives to impart knowledge, if at the same time there is no active activity of the students themselves in acquiring knowledge, if the teacher has not created motivation and has not ensured the organization of their educational and cognitive activity, then the learning process does not actually take place. Scientific theory the learning process includes the development of such techniques and ways of organizing educational, cognitive and research activities students, which ensure their effective assimilation of knowledge, the development of skills and habits, and the formation of ways of thinking and acting. A teacher’s work system can be effective only when it is based on knowledge of the internal mechanisms of teaching, on an understanding of how reflection and refraction of what is perceived in the course of learning occurs in the minds of students. educational process information. Thus, the interaction between teacher and students cannot be reduced to the “transmitter-receiver” relationship. Activity and interaction of all participants in the educational process are necessary. The French physicist Pascal correctly noted that “a student is not a vessel that needs to be filled, but a torch that needs to be lit.” Consequently, learning can be characterized as a purposeful process of active interaction between the teacher and students, as a result of which students develop knowledge, abilities, skills, ways of thinking and acting based on their own activity. The concept of activity in the learning process. Cognitive activity – the most important condition implementation of the learning process and characteristics of students’ cognitive actions. Without the student's activity in his learning, essentially, the learning process will not take place. On the one hand, intensifying the educational and cognitive activity of students (or intensifying learning) is a system of actions of a teacher who creates incentives that encourage students to actively engage in mastering educational material. On the other hand, the activation of learning is the mobilization of the intellectual, moral and volitional forces of students to solve educational, cognitive and search problems. At the same time, the learning process involves the implementation of independence, discipline, organization, responsibility, initiative and other personal qualities of students. Cognitive activity is a characteristic of students’ activities; activation of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren is a characteristic of the teacher’s purposeful activity in the learning process. Thus, the concept of activity, which characterizes the essence of the learning process, lies in the system of active, cognitive actions of students, performed by them as a result of actively encouraging actions of the teacher. Consequently, learning is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational, cognitive and educational-research activities of students to master scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, and develop their creativity, worldview and moral and aesthetic views. Driving forces learning process. Dialectical materialism proceeds from the fact that the source of development is the unity and struggle of opposites. Let us define the contradictions that determine the development, and therefore the improvement of the educational process. External contradictions arising between the ever-increasing demands of society for the activities of the school, for the organization of the educational process and the level of the current state under the influence of scientific, technical and socio-economic progress school practice. Analysis of the formation of a social order for a school, monitoring the quality of education and upbringing of schoolchildren makes it possible to implement measures aimed at increasing efficiency pedagogical process at school. The main contradiction inherent in the educational process is the contradiction between the needs that arise in students under the influence of the teacher for mastering educational material and real opportunities to satisfy these needs, namely: between the logic of the material presented and the process of assimilating it, between the level theoretical knowledge and the ability to apply them in practice, etc. Analysis of these contradictions contributes to the optimal choice of technologies, methods, means, and forms of training. Basic functions of training. Comprehensive harmonious development personality presupposes the unity of its education, upbringing and general development. Based on this, the learning process is designed to carry out three functions: educational (teaching), educational, developmental. The identification of these functions is conditional. The educational process involves the formation in students not only of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also of personal qualities, ways of thinking and acting, worldview, and morality. The educational function, first of all, involves the assimilation of scientific knowledge, the formation of special, general subject (or general educational) and interdisciplinary skills. Scientific knowledge includes facts, concepts, laws, patterns, theories, and a generalized picture of the world. Special skills and abilities are specific practical skills and skills specific to a particular academic subject and branches of science. In addition to special skills in the educational process, students master general educational skills that are relevant to all subjects: the ability to work with a book, the ability to rationally organize household work, etc., as well as general logical skills: analyze, generalize, systematize, compare, etc. Interdisciplinary skills characterize students' mastery of a specific academic discipline, taking into account its relationships with other subjects, and the application of interdisciplinary knowledge in practice. Educational function education contributes to the formation in students of the need-motivational sphere, worldview, moral, aesthetic ideas, views, beliefs, methods of appropriate behavior and activity in society, a system of ideals, relationships. There is not a one-way connection between training and upbringing from training to upbringing. The process of education proper organization has a beneficial effect on the course of learning, because nurturing discipline, organization, efficiency, independence, initiative, social activity and other qualities creates conditions for more active and successful learning. Developmental function of teaching. Education and upbringing develop personality. This is obvious. In this case, it would seem there is no need to talk about the developmental function of education. But teaching practice shows that teaching carries out a developmental function more effectively if it has a special focus and includes students in activities that develop their sensory perceptions, intellectual, motivational, volitional, emotional spheres of the individual. In this regard, didactics uses the special term developmental education. Its essence lies in the fact that during training, in addition to the formation of knowledge and special skills, it is necessary to ensure the general development of the individual. It should be especially noted that training has always been developmental, but the range of developed qualities, due to insufficient focus on this content and teaching methods, was somewhat narrowed. In the works of Soviet scientists devoted to the problem of developmental education (L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin, L.V. Zankov, V.V. Davydov, M.A. Danilov, M.N. Skatkin, etc.), were studied psychological foundations and various forms and methods of developmental education.. The most known provisions are the ideas of L.V. Zankov that for intensive development of thinking in the learning process it is necessary to provide teaching in high level difficulties; in learning it is necessary to maintain a pace in the passage of the material being studied; mastery of theoretical knowledge has transformative significance in learning (the principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge); the student’s awareness of the significance of the learning process, goals and learning outcomes; simultaneous work on the development of all students - both those who are more successful in learning and those who are lagging behind. All specified functions are in complex relationships, through which the dialectical nature of their unity is manifested. The possibility of complex implementation of these functions should be embedded both in the educational material (learning content), and in the methods and technologies through which this content is transmitted and organized. pedagogical communication. The integrity of learning is manifested in the unity of teaching, educating and developing functions that must be implemented in a holistic educational process. Cyclicity and stepwise nature of the learning process. The cyclical and stepwise nature of the learning process lies in the fact that the educational material is divided into relatively small parts, each of them is thoroughly studied, its assimilation is monitored, and then another part of the material, more complex, is assimilated. The idea of stepwise education and cyclical training was put forward in the 50s by N. A. Petrov. The learning cycle is a sequence of certain actions of the teacher and students aimed at making connections with old material and the student’s experience as a basis for introducing new material, consolidating it and monitoring its assimilation. The essence of the learning process from the perspective of other sciences. The laws of the learning process are the subject of study not only of pedagogy, but also of other sciences with which pedagogy is connected. Pedagogy, turning to the fundamental concepts of physiology, is widely based on the doctrine of two signaling systems(for example, when studying the problem of the relationship between words and visualization), provides an explanation for many forms of behavior and varying degrees of activity of students from the perspective of the emergence of foci of excitation and inhibition. The key to understanding fatigue during active exercise is to understand the mechanism by which the excitability of cortical cells decreases when exposed to too much or too much stimulation. Attract the attention of teachers and are intensively conducted in lately rhythm studies physiological functions(biorhythms) and their influence on human performance. Special approach Cybernetics also advances the understanding of the learning process, considering learning as a special controlled closed system. Its control center is the teacher, the controlled object is the student, and the control itself is carried out on the basis of sending information from the control center via a direct communication channel and receiving information about the behavior of the controlled object via a feedback channel. Questions of cognition and human cognitive activity - these are fundamental questions of philosophy - are connected with the problem of teaching in pedagogy. The basis of the philosophical theory of knowledge is the theory of reflection. According to this theory, the process of cognition of the objective world is a process of reflecting the phenomena of reality in human consciousness. The materialistic essence of reflection lies in the fact that all matter has the ability to reflect and be reflected, “that our sensations, our consciousness are only an image of the external world.” Formula of the process of cognition: “From living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice - this is the dialectical path of knowledge of truth, knowledge objective reality" (V.I. Lenin).
1. Teaching and learning as two sides of the educational process.
2. Communication styles and their influence on the two-way nature of the learning process.
1. Any phenomenon has content and form. The content side of the learning process is the cognitive activity of the student. It must be organized by the teacher so that the student learns about the world around him, the patterns of its development, the interconnections and interdependence of nature, society and man, so that learning accelerates mental development every person.
The two-way nature of the learning process is the form in which the learning process occurs. In form, the learning process consists of two sides: teaching and learning. There should be the following interaction between them: the teacher teaches in such a way that all participants in the learning process become subjects, i.e. active, independent students in mastering knowledge.
However, a teacher in mass practice often builds this process not as interaction, but as an impact on students, i.e. simplifies it according to the following formula: “I teach, and you must study.” If students do not fulfill their duty of teaching, then the teacher begins to make demands on them, and if they do not fulfill them, he begins to punish them. In this situation, when there is no interaction between teacher and student and when it is replaced by the teacher’s influence on students, the learning process loses its teaching, developmental, and nurturing functions, as a result, the process of cognition in learning is superficial, formal in nature, as noted by Ya.A. Comenius. About education, he wrote that students should receive
superficial, formal knowledge, but knowledge that gives him the opportunity to think with his own mind and make independent choices in various situations.
Innovative teachers build the two-way nature of the learning process on the basis of interaction with students, according to the formula of the humanist teacher Sh.A. Amonashvili: “I will teach you, children, so that you want to learn.” To do this, he studies students minute by minute to find a way to interact with each student. His form of teaching process is based on love for children, he strives to make it beautiful.
Most teachers do not attach any importance to the form of teaching. Sh.A writes about this. Amonashvili in the book “Hello, children!”:
“On the one conducted by me open lesson 15 teachers came. I began the lesson with this greeting and immediately joyfully realized that I managed to pronounce it in... a special key. After the lesson, I approached everyone present and asked: “You probably noticed how I said: “Hello, children!”?” And they couldn’t tell me anything, they couldn’t even remember exactly what words I addressed to the children. “A greeting as a greeting,” they said in bewilderment, “what’s special here?..” How surprised I was that the special tone of the greeting - inviting, kind, stimulating good spirits, the joy of learning, the happiness of communication - is not worthy of being considered as method of nurturing love and trust of a person to a person, hope in a person? Say “Hello” to someone in a tone of condescension or a tone that expresses the joy of meeting you, and you will see how the same word, pronounced differently, will change people's attitude towards you!
How to say the greeting “Hello, children!” - this is a serious pedagogical problem... My commandment says:
If I strive to show my true love for children, then I must do this in the best forms...”
Sh.A. Amonashvili loves children with pedagogical love, he especially loves naughty children, which is not the case in the mass practice of teachers’ pedagogical activities. His love for them is expressed in this characteristic of him:
“Naughty kids are smart, witty children who know how to use their abilities in any unexpected conditions and cause adults to feel the need to reassess situations and relationships...
Naughty children are cheerful children: they help others to be playful, active, and able to defend themselves...
Naughty children are children with strong tendencies towards self-development, self-movement, they make up for the mistakes of teachers in the development of their individual abilities...
Naughty children are children with humor. They see the funny in the most serious things, they know how to force the careless into situations that are unusual for them and love to make fun of them; they give a good mood and laughter not only to themselves, but also to others who feel humor...
Naughty children are sociable children, because they perform every prank in communication with everyone who deserves to be a participant in their pranks...
Naughty people are active dreamers, striving for independent knowledge and transformation of reality... (1, 26-27).
Is this how a teacher treats naughty people?
You can find out how future teachers feel about non-standard children by offering students the following diagnostics:
“Having divided a sheet of paper in half with a vertical line, put a minus sign over its left half and a plus sign over its right. Next, fill in each half. brief characteristics(epithets) that the teacher applies to students. Accordingly, write down negative characteristics under the minus, and positive characteristics under the plus.”
Then you can listen to several students based on the results of this diagnostic and ask them to draw conclusions about their attitude towards students with a large “set” negative qualities personality.
2. The two-way nature of the learning process is determined by the communication between the teacher and students. The teacher’s communication with students must be constantly adjusted depending on unforeseen situations that arise, only then will the learning process be two-way in nature. However, in mass practice, the teacher often does not think about his communication with students, does not strive to delve into the intricacies of what is happening, as evidenced by the peculiar methods of establishing contact with students: “Why aren’t you working?”, “Don’t fidget, stand near the desk and wait.” , “Why are you sitting and sleeping, when will you start answering?”, “You’re spying again, you think I don’t see and don’t know that you’re not teaching anything?”
Psychologist B.G. Ananyev cites facts of communication between the teacher and students, indicating that the teacher really does not think about his communication with children. The teacher turns to the weak student after the strong and average students did not answer the question: “Well, maybe at least you will answer?” Such an address by the teacher to the student creates an unfavorable environment for the correct answer. The way the teacher addresses the students is of great importance for the students’ response: “Petya, tell us”; he addresses other students by last name: “Ivanov, tell us!”, and to some - pointing with his hand or eyes at the student or vaguely: “There you are, yes, yes, yes, you tell us!”
1) many requirements for students that are impossible to even remember, let alone fulfill;
3) endless notations both in class and after class.
This style of communication between teacher and students does not allow organizing cognitive activity students in a way that stimulates their activity and initiative. In this, learning, teaching and learning are not interconnected.
An authoritarian teacher most often seeks to take away the initiative from students and is in a hurry to finish the students’ answers or answer instead. Those students who have the ability and always raise their hands are initiative, while the rest are naughty, i.e. They take the initiative not in learning, but in pranks. And the authoritarian teacher attacks the naughty children, demanding discipline from them and punishing them for its violations.
Teachers who take the position of cooperative pedagogy give children initiative within the educational process within wide limits and skillfully collaborate with them. The teacher guides the students, helping them. He strives to invent means by which children transform themselves from those who do not know into those who know, from those who do not know how to do so.
1) trust in the intellectual powers of the child, giving them independence in cognitive activity;
2) a minimum of rewards and punishments;
3) giving children the right to regulate their own behavior;
4) involving children in learning so that it brings them joy and success;
5) no compulsion to study.
In improving his style of communication with students, a teacher needs to know certain patterns in communication:
1) the regularity of the measure, time, place of influence on the student - the teacher, in the interests of effective interaction with students, does not always have to reveal to the student that he sees and notices everything; the teacher must “not notice” or not notice something in the student’s behavior until some time;
2) there is a relationship between the tone of speech and its educational effectiveness - the less respectful the teacher’s tone, the more irritable he is, the lower his positive impact on students.
Compliance with these patterns in teacher-student communication will ensure a two-way nature of learning.
Literature (main):
1. Zagvyazinsky V.I. Learning theory. M. Academy. 2006.
Literature (additional):
1. Amonashvili Sh.A. Hello children! M.: Education, 1990.
2. Mlocheshek L.I. Course of lectures on learning theory. Study guide. Taganrog. 2007.
3. Okon V. Introduction to general didactics. M.: Higher school. 1990.
4. Rybakova M.M. Conflict and interaction in the pedagogical process. M., 1991.
Content
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..3
1. The essence of the learning process. Its two-sided nature...………………...4
1.1.The essence of the learning process……………………………………………………………...4
1.2.Teaching and learning as two sides of the educational process………………...7
1.3.Communication styles and their influence on the two-way nature of the learning process………………………………………………………………………………………………...8
Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………...11
References…………………………………………………………………………………12
Keywords…………………………………………………………………….13
Introduction
Important place in the structure of the pedagogical process is the learning process, during which knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired, personal qualities are formed that allow a person to adapt to external conditions and show your individuality.
Theoretical foundations of the learning process, its patterns, principles, methods, etc. studies the most important branch of pedagogy - didactics. Didactics is a part of pedagogy that develops problems of teaching and education. Reveals the patterns of assimilation of knowledge, abilities and skills and the formation of beliefs, determines the volume and structure of the content of education, improves methods and organizational forms education, the educational impact of the educational process on students.
The qualitative originality of learning is revealed by comparing it with upbringing, education and development.
IN different types teaching, its educational, educational and developmental component is not presented in the same way, but the teacher is obliged to constantly construct it. Thus, the study of the characteristics of the educational process is a pressing issue in modern pedagogy.
The purpose of this test is to study the essence of the learning process and its two-sided nature.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:
1. Consideration of the essence of the learning process
2. Study of the two-way nature of the learning process.
1. The essence of the learning process. Its two-sided nature.
1.1The essence of the learning process
The processes of learning and teaching (teaching) represent two special, although interrelated, forms of activity between the student and the teacher and reflect the dual nature of the learning process.
The scientific theory of the learning process includes the development of such techniques and ways of organizing the cognitive activity of students that ensure their effective assimilation of knowledge, the development of skills and abilities, and the formation of abilities.
In the definition of learning given modern pedagogy, the interaction between teacher and student is emphasized. Recognizing the importance and significance modern trends and in understanding the essence of the learning process, it is still necessary to emphasize the leadership and directing activity of the teacher, who even at the most high activity and independence of students always acts as the organizer of their cognitive activity. Its functions also include planning, stimulation, control, analysis of results and educational work.
Didacticsis a branch of pedagogy aimed at studying and revealing theoretical foundations organization of the learning process (patterns, principles, teaching methods), as well as the search and development of new principles, methods, technologies and training systems.
There are general and private didactics. This is how teaching methods for individual academic disciplines(methods of teaching mathematics, teaching chemistry, teaching history).
The main categories of didactics: learning, teaching, teaching.
Education - This is a purposeful process of bilateral activity between the teacher (teacher, professor) and the student in the transfer and assimilation of knowledge. The two-way nature of learning lies in the fact that learning necessarily includes two interrelated processes: teaching and learning. Therefore, the basis of training is joint activities, purposeful interaction between teacher and student. They both must be active in educational process, i.e. act as subjects of learning. If the teacher is not active enough in teaching activities(does not strive for a variety of forms and methods in the lessons, poorly organizes learning control, irregularly consolidates what has been learned, etc.), he will not achieve good result in teaching. If a student is passive in learning (for example: does not follow the teacher’s thoughts when explaining new material, does not try to complete the exercise on his own, does not complete homework), he does not master the educational material well. Thus, the learning outcome (student’s level of training) depends on the degree of activity of both subjects of the educational process.
Teaching is the activity of a teacher in:
1. transfer of information;
2. organization of educational and cognitive activities of students;
3. providing assistance in case of difficulties in the learning process;
4. stimulating the interest, independence and creativity of students;
5. assessment educational achievements students.
The purpose of teaching is to organize effective learning for each student in the process of transmitting information, monitoring and evaluating its assimilation. The effectiveness of teaching also involves interaction with students and the organization of both joint and independent activity.
Teaching is the student’s activity in:
1. mastering, consolidating and applying knowledge, skills and abilities;
2. self-stimulation to search, solve educational assignments, self-assessment of achievements;
3. awareness of personal meaning and social significance cultural values and human experience, processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The purpose of the teaching is to understand, collect and process information about the world around us. The results of the study are expressed in knowledge, abilities, skills, a system of relationships and general development student.
Educational activities include:
1. mastering knowledge systems and operating them;
2. mastery of systems of generalized and more specific actions, methods (methods) of educational work, ways of transferring and finding them - skills and abilities;
3. development of teaching motives, formation of motivation and meaning of the latter;
4. mastery of ways to manage your educational activities and your mental processes(will, emotions, etc.).
The effectiveness of training is determined by internal and external criteria. The success of training and academic performance, as well as the quality of knowledge and the degree of development of skills, the level of development of the student, the level of training and learning ability are used as internal criteria.
The process of acquiring knowledge is carried out in stages in accordance with the following levels:
1. distinguishing or recognizing an object (phenomenon, event, fact);
2. memorizing and reproducing the subject, understanding, applying knowledge in practice and transferring knowledge to new situations.
The quality of knowledge is assessed by such indicators as its completeness, consistency, depth, effectiveness, and strength.
One of the main indicators of a student’s development prospects is the student’s ability to independent decision educational tasks (close in principle of solution in cooperation and with the help of a teacher).
The following are accepted as external criteria for the effectiveness of the learning process:
1. degree of adaptation of the graduate to social life and professional activities;
2. growth rate of the self-education process as a prolonged effect of training;
3. level of education or professional excellence;
4. willingness to improve education.
In teaching practice, a unity of logics of the educational process has developed: inductive-analytical and deductive-synthetic. The first focuses on observation, living contemplation and perception of reality, and only then on abstract thinking, generalization, systematization of educational material. The second option focuses on the teacher’s introduction of scientific concepts, principles, laws and patterns, and then their practical concretization.
1.2. Teaching and learning as two sides of the educational process.
Any phenomenon has content and form. The content side of the learning process is the cognitive activity of the student. It must be organized by the teacher so that the student learns about the world around him, the patterns of its development, the interconnections and interdependence of nature, society and man, so that training accelerates the mental development of each person.
The two-way nature of the learning process is the form in which the learning process occurs. In form, the learning process consists of two sides: teaching and learning. There should be the following interaction between them: the teacher teaches in such a way that all participants in the learning process become subjects, i.e. active, independent students in mastering knowledge.
However, a teacher in mass practice often builds this process not as interaction, but as an impact on students, i.e. simplifies it according to the following formula: “I teach, and you must study.” If students do not fulfill their duty of teaching, then the teacher begins to make demands on them, and if they do not fulfill them, he begins to punish them. In this situation, when there is no interaction between teacher and student and when it is replaced by the teacher’s influence on students, the learning process loses its teaching, developmental, and nurturing functions, as a result, the process of cognition in learning is superficial, formal in nature, as noted by Ya.A. Comenius. He wrote about education that students should receive not superficial, formal knowledge, but knowledge that gives him the opportunity to think with his own mind and make independent choices in various situations.
Innovative teachers build the two-way nature of the learning process on the basis of interaction with students, according to the formula of the humanist teacher Sh.A. Amonashvili: “I will teach you, children, so that you want to learn.” To do this, he studies students minute by minute to find a way to interact with each student. His form of teaching process is based on love for children, he strives to make it beautiful.
Most teachers do not attach any importance to the form of teaching.
1.3. Communication styles and their influence on the two-way nature of the learning process.
The two-way nature of the learning process is determined by the communication between the teacher and students. The teacher’s communication with students must be constantly adjusted depending on unforeseen situations that arise, only then will the learning process be two-way in nature. However, in mass practice, the teacher often does not think about his communication with students, does not strive to delve into the intricacies of what is happening, as evidenced by the peculiar methods of establishing contact with students: “Why aren’t you working?”, “Don’t fidget, stand near the desk and wait.” , “Why are you sitting and sleeping, when will you start answering?”, “You’re spying again, you think I don’t see and don’t know that you’re not teaching anything?” .
Psychologists cite facts of communication between teachers and students, indicating that teachers really do not think about their communication with children.
1) many requirements for students that are impossible to even remember, let alone fulfill;
3) endless notations both in class and after class.
This style of communication between teachers and students does not allow organizing the cognitive activity of students in such a way as to stimulate their activity and initiative. In this, learning, teaching and learning are not interconnected.
Teachers who take the position of cooperative pedagogy give children initiative within the educational process within wide limits and skillfully collaborate with them. The teacher guides the students, helping them. He strives to invent means by which children transform themselves from those who do not know into those who know, from those who do not know how to do so.
Therefore, the teacher must get rid of the authoritarian style of communication with students and master the humanistic style of communication.
In improving his style of communication with students, a teacher needs to know certain patterns in communication:
1) the regularity of the measure, time, place of influence on the student - the teacher, in the interests of effective interaction with students, does not always have to reveal to the student that he sees and notices everything; the teacher must “not notice” or not notice something in the student’s behavior until some time;
2) there is a relationship between the tone of speech and its educational effectiveness - the less respectful the teacher’s tone, the more irritable he is, the lower his positive impact on students.
Compliance with these patterns in teacher-student communication will ensure a two-way nature of learning.
Conclusions
Teaching is a complex, subtle, multifaceted and unique art, since it involves two people - the teacher and the student. The results of learning are reflected in the quality of knowledge and the level of development of the student.
While recognizing learning as an art, one should not think that not everyone can master it. Pedagogical activity requires the teacher to have diverse knowledge and hard work to achieve high results in the training and education of students.
Education includes the activity of the teacher - teaching and the activity of the student - learning. Under the guidance of the teacher, children are involved in activities. Some people make mistakes, their comrades correct them, and the teacher gives explanations. The main thing is that no one is distracted. The learning process will be productive when both the teacher and students work actively and purposefully.
References
1. Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. pedagogy: Textbook. allowance. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. – p. 203-204.
2. Sidorov S.V. Double sided and personal character training: Textbook. Shadrinsk, 2004. –p. 50.
3. Ilyina T. A. Pedagogy: a course of lectures. Textbook manual for pedagogical students. Inst. – M.: education, 1984. – 496 p.
4. Pedagogy: textbook. / L. P. Krivshenko [etc.]; edited by L.P. Krivshenko. – M.: TK Volbi, Prospekt Publishing House, 2005. – 432 p.
5. Podlysaty I. P. Pedagogy: New course: Textbook. For students higher textbook head: In 2 books. – M.: Humanit. ed. VLADOS center, 2002. – Book. 1: General basics. The learning process. – 576 pp.: ill.
Keywords
Education
Education
Didactics
Learning ability
Teacher
processtargetedtransferssocio-historicalexperience.Training is basedonmemorization;theoriesmemorizationfor a long timereliedon trainingAndonarising fromhimphysical and mentalprocesses.EasierAndbettertotalmemorableThat,Whatsharpstands outfromof the whole massdigestiblematerial,VforcewhatarisesIt's clearexpressed figuresAndbasics. Repetitionatmemorizationby heartservesclarificationparticularsVfigure(), understandableas a whole.Pedagogy: Textbook / ed. P.I. Pidkasistogo.- M.: Russian Pedagogical Agency, 2000.- 480 p.
Education is a specially organized, controlled process of interaction between teachers and students, aimed at mastering knowledge, skills, abilities, forming a worldview, developing the mental strength and potential of students, consolidating self-education skills in accordance with the goals.
Podlysatiy I.P. Pedagogy: New course: Proc. For students higher textbook head: In 2 books. – M.: Humanit. ed. VLADOS center, 2002.
Didactics
(instructive) – a section of pedagogy in which the theory of education and training (goals, content, patterns and principles of teaching), as well as education in the learning process, is developed.
Didactics - theory of education and training, branch of pedagogy.
Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. pedagogy: Textbook. allowance. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.
Didactics- ( Greek didaktike the art or science of teaching) is a theory of learning.
Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. 2010.
Learning ability - individual indicators of the speed and quality of a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities during the learning process
Brief psychological dictionary . - Rostov- on- Don:« PHOENIX». L. A. Karpenko, A. IN. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .
Learning ability - (English)docility , educational ability , learning ability ) - empirical characteristics of individual learning capabilitiesassimilationeducational information, to executioneducational activities, including Kmemorizationeducational material, solutiontasks, performing various types of educational control and self-control.
Large psychological dictionary. - M. : Prime- EUROZNAK. Edited by. B. G. Meshcheryakova, academician. IN. P. Zinchenko. 2003 .
Learning ability - individual indicators of the speed and quality of a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities during the learning process. There are: 1) general learning ability - the ability to assimilate any material; 2) special learning ability - the ability to assimilate individual species material (various sciences, arts, types practical activities). The first is an indicator of the general, and the second - the special talent of the individual.
Learning ability – this is a person’s general ability for continuous development in the learning process. The ability to learn includes features of intelligence.
Teacher - (from the Greek paidagogos - educator) - 1) a person who conducts practical work on the upbringing, education and training of children and youth and has special training in this area (teacher of a secondary school, teacher of a vocational school, secondary specialized educational institution, educator kindergarten etc.).
Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. - under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian dictionaries, 1999
Teacher -a person engaged in teaching and educational work as a profession; teacher, lecturer.
He was a true teacher who took both his teaching and his career very seriously.Korolenko, History of my contemporary.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia 1969-1978
Teacher - teacher. Face, leading the work in the upbringing, education and training of children and youth and having special training in this area. In addition, he is a scientist who develops theoretical problems of pedagogy.
“Aphorisms from all over the world. Encyclopedia of Wisdom,” 2003.
Teaching is a type of human activity that involves the interaction of a teacher and a student, therefore it is two-way in nature, that is, it consists of two processes: 1) the teaching process - the activity of the teacher; 2) the learning process - the activity of the student or team. Learning is impossible without interaction between the teacher and students, which can be direct (the teacher and student jointly implement learning tasks) and indirect (the student completes the task given earlier by the teacher). The learning process can take place without a teacher (for example, independent work). The learning process is not the mechanical sum of the teaching and learning process. This is a qualitatively new holistic phenomenon. The essence of the teaching is the unity of knowledge and communication. The learning process includes goals, motives, content, methods of activity; it requires willpower, physical and intellectual strength, ways to regulate actions and monitor their effectiveness. Therefore, we can identify the following components in the structure of the learning process:
1. Target Component- this is the awareness by the teacher and students of the goals and objectives of each subject, its specific sections and topics. This awareness depends on the level of education and upbringing of the students, knowledge of previous material, and everything - on the teacher’s determination, his ability to set and explain goals and objectives to his students.
2. Stimulating-motivational component of the learning process- this is a continuation of targeted explanation, in-depth motivation, measures to stimulate cognitive interest, a sense of duty and responsibility among students.
4. Operational a component that can be called methodological, because it covers all the methods, techniques, forms of teaching that the teacher operates in the process of his activities and interaction with students.
5. The control-regulatory component is control over the progress of the learning process “feedback - the teacher receives information about the degree of difficulties, shortcomings, and the quality of the stages of learning. It includes those methods of control, self-control and mutual control that the teacher uses in parallel with the presentation of new material. Feedback involves adjustments, regulation of the learning process, changes in teaching methods and means.
6. Evaluative-performance component- final in the learning process, it provides for the assessment of students’ knowledge before graduation high school, as well as self-esteem by students results achieved. All components need to be considered in interconnection, they represent stages, links in the structure of the learning process, they need to be approached creatively, and patterns should not be allowed in their use.
The role of the teacher in educational process. The teacher acts as the organizer and leader of students' educational activities. He has a leadership role. The teacher’s activities consist of planning, organization, stimulation, running control, regulation, and analysis of results. Planning- this is the compilation of calendar-thematic and lesson plans. For some subjects, teachers receive ready-made thematic plans and make only some adjustments to them. When drawing up lesson plans, teachers use manuals on teaching methods specific items. Young teachers write detailed plans lessons, which indicate the purpose, the main questions for questioning students, post new material, mark the numbers of exercises, tasks for consolidation and repetition, content homework, list of equipment and literature. Experienced teachers write less detailed plans.
The organization of the learning process consists of two stages: preparatory and executive. On preparatory stage the teacher selects TSO, visibility, handout, conducts experiments, demonstrations, views filmstrips, selects educational literature, writes a plan.
Organization of teacher activities- setting lesson objectives, creating favorable conditions, distributing functions when organizing practical work, brief instructions, timely assistance to students.
The stimulating function of the teacher is that he provides the need to study the topic, reveals its meaning, and thinks through stimulation techniques cognitive activity students, relieves tension, overload and increases student activity.
Running control, regulation and adjustment of the educational process is carried out through observation, specific issues, exercises, individual interviews, analysis written works, student notebooks. It allows you to identify typical shortcomings and difficulties in students, prevent gaps in knowledge; the teacher must see the rationality of the chosen option for educational activities, regulate, supplement and change its pace of learning.
Analysis of the results is the final cycle of learning. Here it is important to establish the level of students’ awareness of knowledge, the ability to apply acquired knowledge, analyze the causes of gaps, and outline ways to eliminate them.
To carry out the teaching process, the teacher needs to know the purpose of the school, the place of “his” subject in its implementation, know the students, and be able to manage the learning process.
Psychological foundations of students' activities in the process training. The learning process is based on the idea of an activity approach, developed domestic psychologists. Education is a system of cognitive actions of students aimed at solving educational problems. The formula is very important.L. Vygotsky “Teaching comes ahead of development,” that is, taking into account the zone of proximal development of the individual, focusing not on the level of development achieved today, but on a higher one that a student can achieve under the guidance and help of a teacher. In a school of developmental education, on the contrary, the development of the ability to learn comes first.
Modern educational psychology believes that each age period has its own, most characteristic type of activity: in preschool and primary school age - this is learning, in middle school age - socially useful practice and communication, in older age - special career guidance work, independent judgments and assessments. It is important to develop the full range of activities. Analytical-synthetic activity, comparison, associations, generalizations, flexibility of thinking, and semantic memory are of great importance for the assimilation of knowledge. Outstanding didactic scientists P. Galperin and N. Talyzina developed the structure of the assimilation cycle: preliminary familiarization with the action, the conditions for its implementation; the formation of actions in the form of operations, the formation of actions as extralinguistic; formation of action in external speech; formation of action in inner speech, its transition into deep processes of thinking. This whole sequence mental actions applies to explanatory and illustrative, and not to problem-based learning. There are two typical options for schoolchildren’s educational activities:
Lesson and independent work of students. During the lesson, the student performs the following actions: perceives learning objectives, action plans from the teacher; carries out learning activities and operations; regulates educational activities; analyzes learning results.
During independent activity, the student performs the following actions: plans the tasks of his educational activities, methods, means, forms of training; self-organized educational activities; carries out self-monitoring of the results of educational activities.
The psychological nature of the assimilation process, including perception, understanding, comprehension, generalization, consolidation, application.
Perception is a necessary condition and the beginning of great assimilation. In the learning process, perception is preceded by the creation of students’ readiness to participate in learning, the formation of their cognitive activity, motivation for learning, reliance on previous knowledge and experience, and focusing on the object of knowledge.
New educational material must be presented concisely, information must be generalized and unified, students’ attention must be focused on semantic points, and separate independent units educational material; the new material must have a clear, understandable and easy-to-remember structure; the new educational material must be cleared of unnecessary information. The teacher must be proficient in methods of influencing students emotionally; use them in the process of presenting new material. Special significance has the student’s first impression of educational information (the phenomenon of imprinting), it remains in the mind for a long time, the student receives 90% of knowledge through vision, therefore visual representation educational information needs to be given special attention.
Understanding the training material- this is a generalized establishment of connections between phenomena and processes, their structure, composition, purpose, motives. At the same time, it is very important to present new material clearly, accessible, and logically, and to include students in comparing facts and research data. Understanding is impossible without deep penetration into the essence of phenomena and processes. Understanding does not yet provide complete assimilation material, it is the starting point for a deep, comprehensive understanding of information.
Comprehension- this is a deeper course of the processes of analysis, synthesis, comparison, induction, deduction. In the course of comprehension, understanding is enriched, it becomes versatile and deep, the beginnings of conviction, skills, and discoveries appear.
Generalization occurs when the common essential features of the objects and phenomena that are being studied are identified and combined. It clearly manifests itself when highlighting the main, essential. Generalization completes the training, but is not necessary, because, for example, laws can be given at the beginning of the lesson. The degree of generalization of knowledge is checked when transferring it to the solution of new educational and practical exercises. At the generalization stage, knowledge is systematized - this is a classification of facts, phenomena, processes.
Consolidation- this is re-thinking for the purpose of remembering. In securing the material important has a primary, current and generalizing repetition. The following requirements are imposed on the organization of repetition: it must be purposeful, have a certain motivation, be correctly distributed in time, carried out in parts or as a whole, and must not allow rote memorization.
Application of knowledge, skills and abilities. The final stage of the learning process is the application of acquired knowledge in practice. This is the transition from the abstract to the concrete. Students perform various exercises, independent laboratory and practical work, write essays, solve problems, prepare interdisciplinary conferences, and compose variable problems.
The effectiveness of learning depends on motivation. Knowing the motives of the students, the teacher can eliminate the shortcomings. It is necessary to deepen the motive of duty, students' responsibility for learning, education, will, constantly emphasize the importance of learning, be demanding of students, and apply incentives.
The effectiveness of assimilation depends on the level of development of the emotional sphere of schoolchildren. In the classroom you need to skillfully use vivid examples, materials from periodicals, grandiose figures and facts of scientific and technological revolution, works of art, quotes from great people and the like. Emotional development students are encouraged by an atmosphere of comfort, protection from injustice, subtle pedagogical approach, high demands, lesson content. During the learning process, you need to look for opportunities to independent work students, because its meaning is irreplaceable. Students must conduct experiments, observations, solve experimental problems, and use special creative thinking techniques.
