French absolutism.(16-18th centuries)

French absolutism - absolute monarchy, established in France in the last two centuries of existence Old order. Absolutism came to replace the period of class monarchy and was destroyed Great French Revolution.

Main features of the social system

In the 16th century, manufacturing appeared - the first stage of capitalist industrial production.

With the development of capitalism, in addition to the main exploiting class - the feudal lords - a new class of large owners appeared - the bourgeoisie. (The original core is the urban patriciate, i.e. rich merchants, moneylenders, bankers often become owners of manufactories.)

The country's population was also divided into three classes. The clergy and nobility retained all their privileges, including “tax immunity.” The third estate included the peasantry.

All legislative, executive, military and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of the hereditary head of state - the king. The entire centralized state was subordinate to him. Mechanism: army, police, administrative and financial apparatus, court.

Factors that contributed to the strengthening of the monarchy.

The bulk of the nobility became support for the throne. The point is that absolute monarchy, although it was independent from individual representatives of this class, steadily and consistently defended the fundamental, class-wide interests of the nobles. Only with the help of absolutism could the suppression of the increasingly intensified anti-feudal struggle of the peasantry be ensured. In addition, a significant part of the funds of the financial apparatus of the monarchy went to the maintenance of the nobles.

A special balance of class forces. A peculiar balance of two classes was established: the nobility, which began to weaken, and the bourgeoisie, which was increasingly gaining strength. The latter was not yet able to qualify for watering. dominant role in the country, but in economic field and partly in the state. apparatus, she could already successfully resist the nobility. Using the contradictions of the two classes, the monarchy achieved some independence.

Richelieu, his reforms.

Cardinal Richelieu played quite a bit important role in the development of absolutism. For almost twenty years (1624 - 1642), he subordinated King Louis 13 to his influence and ruled the country. His policy was aimed at protecting the general class interests of the nobility. Richelieu saw the path to achieving his goal in strengthening absolutism. Under him, the centralization of the administrative apparatus, courts, and finances was strengthened.

Reforms

Dissolution or reduction of the power of noble governors, creating royal commissioners whom he sent to the provinces. Soon the position of “royal commissioner” grew into quartermasters, i.e. officials appointed by the center who dominated the localities and eventually supplanted the aristocratic governors.

The fight against the Huguenot organization, which was a state within a state. French Protestants at their district meetings and at the national synod of the Reformed Church often accepted purely political decisions, entered into negotiations with foreign governments, had their own treasury, controlled many fortresses and were not always obedient to the government. Richelieu deprived them of fortresses and garrisons, took away the right of political assembly, but retained freedom of religion.

The courts lost their independence under him.

Under Richelieu, rebellious aristocrats and many nobles from the non-border territories of France were ordered to tear down the fortifications of their castles in order to prevent the further transformation of these castles into strongholds of the opposition.

Fighting duels.

Fronde(1648-1653)

After the death of Richelieu and Louis 13, the throne passed to his son Louis 14, during whose childhood he was ruled by his mother Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin. The Troubles, which began as a struggle between the aristocracy and Mazarin for power and the distribution of privileges, gave way to popular unrest called the “popular Fronde.”

Louis 14(1643 – 1715)

The rise of absolutism. He followed in the footsteps of Richelieu and Mazarin: he destroyed provincial parliaments in some regions and abolished the remnants of self-government in cities. Now all local affairs were decided in the capital. During his reign, the police received extensive rights; in many cases they took the place of the proper court. The so-called “letre de cashe” appeared - blank forms with the royal signature, with the help of which any person could be put in prison.

Government bodies. Main features.

The Estates General ceases to operate.

The rights of parliaments and, above all, the Paris Parliament are limited. Edict of 1641. obligated parliament to register all ordinances and other regulations emanating from the king.

Control over the church has been strengthened. Bologna Concordat 1516 gave the king the exclusive right to appoint candidates for the posts of the highest hierarchs of the Catholic Church in France. As a result, promotion to the highest church positions became one of the types of royal grants.

Strengthening the bureaucracy. The government sold many positions. While bringing considerable income to the monarchy, the sale of positions also had negative consequences. A great multitude of officials filled the country. These positions then, by tradition, became the property of individual aristocratic families. To solve the problem, but avoid outbreaks of discontent among the nobility. The old state apparatus was preserved, but along with it they began to create a new state system. organs. The most important positions in it began to be occupied by persons appointed by the government, who could recall them at any time. As a result, the country operated government bodies, which could be conditionally divided into two categories: institutions inherited from the past and institutions created by absolutism.

State the council became the highest advisory body under the king. It was supplemented by special Tips: finance council, dispatch council (messages from the field)

Functioned privy council, who was in charge of cassation review of certain categories of cases

There was an apparatus of the chancellor (the king's deputy on the councils)

Gene. Controller of Finance and 4 State Secretary for Military, Foreign, Naval and Court Affairs - bodies created by absolutism. Competence of Gen. The Controller of Finance was the most extensive. He supervised the collection and distribution of funds, checked the activities of local officials. He was in charge of industry, trade, finance, government. works (construction of ports, fortresses, roads), communication routes. Gene. The controller was considered the first minister.

Small Royal Council - a council where the king decided the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy.

Local authorities

Intendants are special local representatives of the royal government. The intendants of justice, police and finance actually led the local administration and court.

Subdelegants were subordinates of the intendants who had real power on the ground.

Police. Endowed with broad powers, it has become omnipresent. They establish censorship of books and review private correspondence.

Many local bodies that have existed since the times class-representative monarchies have lost their powers. This is what happened with Bailly and Prevost. Provincial states were convened only with the permission of the king and were carried out under the control of the intendant.

Several court systems operated at once. They often duplicated each other. The royal courts were strengthened. According to Ordnance of Orleans (1560) and Ordinance of Moulins (1566) they became responsible for most criminal and civil cases. Royal justice received the right of evocation, i.e. accepting for consideration any case from a non-royal court, at whatever stage the court is at. There was no investigation into it. The exception was some church matters. However, this structure was extremely complex and contradictory. The general royal courts consisted of three instances: the courts of the prevot, the court of parliament and the courts of parliament.

State the council was considered as the highest court and was endowed with the right to remove any case from the jurisdiction of parliaments to verify the correctness of the rules of law.

Special courts. Almost every department had its own court, where cases affecting departmental interests were heard.

Military courts were of particular importance. There were maritime and customs courts.

The meaning of absolutism

The absolute monarchy played a relatively progressive role. She fought against the split of the country, thereby creating favorable conditions for her subsequent social economic development. Absolutism promoted the growth of capitalist industry and trade. The government encouraged the construction of new manufactories, introduced high customs duties on foreign goods imported into the country, waged wars against foreign powers that competed in trade, and founded colonies. Approximately from the second half of the 17th century, capitalism reaches a level where its further favorable development in the depths of feudalism becomes impossible. An absolute monarchy, defending the feudal system, loses all its previously inherent limited-progressive features.

1. Describe historical conditions in France, which developed towards the end of the 18th century. Fill out the table.

Historical conditions in France on the eve of the revolution were difficult. The king was pushed to convene the Estates General by both social and economic, as well as political reasons. Despite the fact that in North America France's ally won, but France lost the war as a whole. The main thing is that France failed to seize significant possessions in the Caribbean region, and it was through them that the government hoped to cover military expenses thanks to the very profitable sugar trade at that time. Largely thanks to this, a revolutionary situation arose in the kingdom, caused, first of all, by economic reasons. However, they, naturally, were not the only ones.

2. For what purpose did the king convene the Estates General? How did the conflict between the king and the deputies develop?

The king convened the Estates General to approve the introduction of new taxes. Perhaps he wanted to propose the abolition of pensions and other payments to aristocrats, relying in this decision on the authority of all classes. But he did not have time to make such a proposal. The Estates General showed disobedience even when clarifying the question of the voting procedure: whether the decision would be made by the number of votes of the chambers (then the Third Estate was losing to the two highest ones), or by the number of deputy votes (representatives of the Third Estate made up half of the Estates General). In response to the king's order to disperse, the deputies refused to do so. Representatives of the Third Estate, together with some deputies from the two highest ones, formed the National Assembly on June 17, and the Constituent Assembly on July 9.

3. Highlight and characterize the main stages of the Great French Revolution.

Stages of the revolution.

The first period is characterized by the active struggle of the court and the Constituent Assembly with the victory of the latter. Marked by numerous victories of the revolution. It ended with the storming of the royal Tuileries Palace and the overthrow of the monarchy. At the same time, differences emerged in the revolutionary camp, which were most clearly manifested during the next period.

Characterized by the struggle between radical and moderate forces in the revolutionary camp. At the same time, the methods of struggle became more and more bloody, and it was then that the usual means political struggle became a death sentence. At the same time, wars with invaders and immigrants intensified on the external borders, which escalated the situation within the country.

Jacobin dictatorship. The period of the most radical transformations and at the same time the most massive terror.

Directory Board. In many ways, a return to pre-revolutionary luxury and part of the pre-revolutionary order, but the hosts at this new celebration of life were those who had become rich during the previous stages. Almost the end of the revolution.

4. What was the significance of the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen? What ideas formed its basis?

The main ideas of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen were:

Universal equality of rights;

State guarantees of natural rights;

Classless society;

The power is based only on the will of the people;

Freedom of personality and will, freedom of expression.

The Declaration was the first practical implementation of many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. It laid the foundation for almost all subsequent reforms during the revolution. And up to today The Declaration is one of the foundations of French legislation.

5. Why did the reforms of the first stage of the revolution not remove the contradictions in French society?

Many especially the economic demands of the poorest sections of the population were not satisfied. At the same time, the solution to these issues caused opposition from the propertied layers of the revolutionary camp. Thus, significant contradictions have emerged in the revolutionary movement, without whose permission the further program of action seemed vague. This conflict reflected the contradiction in society as a whole, no longer between the privileged and the unprivileged, but between the haves and the have-nots.

6. Indicate the internal and external factors that contributed to the deepening of revolutionary processes.

External factors include France’s war with a number of European anti-French coalitions and the next offensives of their armies.

Internal factors are much more varied:

An unsuccessful attempt by Louis XVI and his family to flee abroad;

Public debates in political clubs that fueled passions;

Frequent changes of governments by the king;

7. Assess the policies of the Jacobin dictatorship. What methods did the Jacobins use to overcome economic and political difficulties?

Of course, the most gloomy page The Jacobin dictatorship was a revolutionary terror that claimed many lives. But this was not the only mistake on the part of the authorities of the First Republic. In fact, they were unable to offer solutions to the problems facing France: the country's economy was collapsing, its money was incredibly devalued, the poor were not living better, despite executions and confiscations, foreign policy problems were far from being resolved. At the same time, it was actually possible to solve many problems in the countryside and suppress counter-revolutionary protests. However, this did not remove urgent crisis phenomena for the state from the agenda.

8. Describe the internal and external policies of the Directory. Why did the Thermidorian regime lose its support in the country?

In foreign policy, the Directory achieved great success by demonstrating that it was much less revolutionary. In 1795, peace was concluded with Prussia and Spain. Holland, as a result of the victories of the French troops, was turned into the puppet Batavian Republic in the same year. In the following years, Directory commanders, including Napoleon Bonaparte, won a number of impressive victories in battles against the rest of the coalition. Therefore, it can be argued that foreign policy was successful: France’s position stabilized and began to improve noticeably.

The internal politics of the Directory was more controversial. On the one hand, we managed to stabilize economic situation by repealing the “maximum” law and other directive measures of the Jacobins. On the other hand, this caused a sharp rise in prices and a sharp deterioration in the lives of the poor. It was also important that the country's leaders openly abandoned revolutionary ideals and publicly demonstrated their wealth. Such a government cannot count on popular love.

9. What was it like government structure and the government of France under the constitution of 1799? How did Napoleon gradually strengthen his power? How he managed to reconcile different layers French society?

According to new constitution the separation of powers was actually abolished, municipal government, independence of the courts, freedom of speech, etc. The government of the country was subject to a rigid vertical of power headed by three consuls. Initially, General Bonaparte was just the first of these consuls, and therefore became the only one for life. The rest of the system did not need to be changed because it was already subordinate to the consuls. Therefore, when Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804, he only accepted the title; in fact, the state had already been a monarchy.

Different layers of French society were tried in many ways even before Napoleon, during the stubborn struggle of the times of the revolution - the dissatisfied were simply destroyed or immigrated. As a result revolutionary wars there was no force left in the country that could compete with the army (especially since, in conditions of universal conscription, it truly represented most of population), and Napoleon had unquestioned authority in the army thanks to his victories.

10. What influence did the Great french revolution to European countries?

Initially, the revolution was greeted with enthusiasm by some enlightened circles in Europe. Over time, the ruling circles of the region also spoke out - the radicalism of the revolution frightened them, which is why a number of coalitions of European states were organized with the aim of suppressing the popular movement in France by force of arms. At the same time, Paris actively promoted the expansion of the revolution to other countries, proclaiming the slogan “Peace to the huts, war to the palaces.” Such calls sometimes met with warm responses in some circles, for example, Holland, Italy, etc. But pro-French sympathies were never shown of decisive importance, this or that territory supported France only after the victory of French troops there. Over time, the population considered the occupying nature of these troops. During the Napoleonic wars, cases of popular hatred and attitudes towards French troops just like invaders. Such sentiments were especially evident in Spain, where the real guerrilla warfare. It was under the influence of these anti-occupation sentiments that the national identity some peoples, among others it received a powerful impetus.

11. Compare the progress, stages of development and results of the English bourgeois revolution and the Great French Revolution. What similarities and differences can you identify?

Both revolutions have many similarities. Their stages were different because they were determined specific situation, but the move revealed many similarities. In both cases, the king was opposed by the legislative authorities, and both losing kings were executed according to court sentences. Both revolutions established republics. Both revolutions involved the struggle of different parties within the revolutionary camp and the rise to power of a successful commander. But in England and France these events took place in a different order.

However, the differences between the revolutions were more significant. In England, parliament acted within the framework of religious Protestant ideology. At the same time, it was initially intended only to consolidate the original rights of parliament; the idea of ​​​​restructuring the state arose already during the revolution. French revolutionaries initially acted within the framework of a secular ideology and immediately sought a reasonable reorganization of society within the framework of the ideas proposed by the Enlightenment. That is why only the Great French Revolution had followers; it was on it that throughout the 19th century those who sought to transform the political system in their countries were guided.

Whatever traits are attributed to the French - they are too frivolous, lazy, unpunctual, depraved, too kind and mercantile. They are also gallant, sociable, playful and cheerful. As with any stereotypes, there is some truth in this, but behind all the listed features a rich, deep, subtle national character is hidden. Penetrating the secrets of the French mentality, foreigners are beginning to be more tolerant of the lateness, stinginess, and talkativeness of the French - after all, this is only one side of the coin, and on the other hand, they are easy-going, prudent and smart, polite and courteous.

The first thing that immediately catches your eye when meeting any Frenchman is this is the ability to speak well. The French are distinguished by easy and fast speech with graceful words(this beautiful French- it’s impossible not to fall in love with him), interesting and beautifully expressed thoughts, the ability to convince and charm interlocutors, a subtle sense of humor. Those who believe that the inhabitants of France are carried away by empty chatter apparently do not know the language: the conversations are about politics, about philosophy, about literature, about culture. For the most part The French are smart and well-read, it’s not for nothing that there is a common saying that the Romans were created to conquer the world, the Russians - to feel, and the French - to think. Born philosophers, they are able to analyze their thoughts and actions and constantly feel the need to express their feelings and share their ideas.

TO national language The French have a reverent attitude. They can be charmed by just trying to speak French. True, for convenience they will immediately switch to English, which, however, most of them do not know very well and do not like. Same French residents express a caring attitude towards everything national: history, culture, literature, cuisine. They are distinguished by pride in their country and a desire for national isolation.

French temperament cannot be called calm, but thanks to their desire to follow the rules of etiquette and the ability to defuse the situation with witty comments, scandals and disputes rarely occur. Although they often act too impulsively, impudently and, at first glance, thoughtlessly - this is how French penchant for experimentation, for which they are often called frivolous. Flirting between a man and a woman- a common thing, even if they are strangers. Moreover, the absence of even a hint of seduction is perceived as discourtesy.

Due to their penchant for imagination and experimentation, the French, unlike the British, love everything new. They were the ones who became trendsetters both in clothing and in other areas of life. Passionate fans of any innovation, they eagerly await new products in cinema, technology, and design. Fashion in France changes rapidly, but the French enjoy such an active pace of life. It is surprising that with such a desire for everything new, they love old houses (they are specially restored to a minimum), antique things, aged wines, cheeses, cognac, old houses. For their food special treatment - a self-respecting Frenchman will never eat on the go, will never wash down cheese with juice or Coca-Cola, will never forget about the rules of table setting. But some culinary and eating habits, on the contrary, seem unacceptable to foreigners; for example, in restaurants, bread is placed directly on the table, and diligently dipping a piece of bread in the remnants of sauce or dipping cookies in coffee is not considered indecent. .

The French are less law-abiding than the Germans or the British, although they always strictly follow social norms and rules of etiquette. But punctuality is not included in the list of these norms, lateness- This national habit, and the higher a person’s social status, the later he can arrive. They also take their work lightly; the French are slow to get into a businesslike mood; they often drink coffee in working hours, on Monday they may be significantly late. The lunch break is not one, but two hours, because lunch is not a quick snack, but a whole ceremony.

France... It is so mysterious and attractive, aristocratic and alluring... Probably everyone recognizes that this country is a trendsetter in world fashion, and Paris is synonymous with sophistication. And the grace and charm of its inhabitants are legendary. We are sure that a French woman must certainly be a sophisticated, stylishly dressed, slender mademoiselle in high heels and a flirty hat.

Oh yes, and of course a couture handbag. The Frenchman is an incredibly charming man, temperamental, loving, gallant. He is ready to write poetry to the lady of his heart and give his life defending her dignity.

France is Coco Chanel and Jean-Paul Gaultier, Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo, Edith Piaf and Patricia Kaas... The great homeland of great people.

How are the French different from us Slavs? Why is it that even in jokes a French woman is thin and loud, in a short lace peignoir, languidly eating lettuce leaves from a porcelain plate, and a Russian woman is a kind of thunder woman in an apron and with a rolling pin in her hand, who will stop a galloping horse and a burning hut? will it come in easily? Why, defending his honor, a Frenchman from book novels, moving gracefully, fights with swords, and the Russian man rolls up his sleeves, takes off his bast shoes and starts a fist fight? What is the difference between the French mentality and ours? Let's try to compare and figure it out.

Pride and Prejudice

The French, especially the Parisians, love themselves very much. They are proud to be French and consider their nation the most beautiful in the world. Way better than everyone else. It seems that the feeling self-esteem and they absorb self-respect with their mother's milk. The Frenchman knows that he deserves all the best just because he was born French. Take, for example, the meal ceremony. The table must be beautifully set, the portion, albeit small, must be exquisitely decorated, all the ingredients are laid out with taste, each in its place. French desserts are masterpieces - the chef, without sparing himself, puts many hours of work into a tiny cake, although he knows perfectly well that a little later the confectionery miracle will be eaten in a matter of minutes.

Here the person is at the center of everything, and everything is done for him and for his sake. If there is a children's park at the school, then rest assured that this is a park, and not a place for walking dogs, drinking beer and smoking weed. Delightful flowers and freshly painted benches, beautiful fountains with drinkable water and well-groomed paths. And even a special gendarme making rounds. In addition, there is a gate that is locked at night. In a word, everything for little Parisians. City buses run strictly according to a schedule, which, by the way, can be obtained at any kiosk, and metro trains run every minute during rush hour. The state works for the people, and in no case vice versa.

Ability to live and enjoy life

The second feature of the French is the ability to take everything from life. The so-called “savoir vivre”. This is a very multi-faceted and multi-component concept, which can probably only be fully grasped by true son France. This is the ability to live a quality life, enjoying every minute. Good manners, politeness and elegance in everything. Exquisite clothes - oh, a true Parisian will never buy new clothes that arrived from China! These are the rules of good manners - a real Parisian will never touch up her makeup in public.

Compliance with etiquette - a man will never allow himself to take off his jacket or loosen his tie during a meeting. This is a subtle sense of humor - every Frenchman must be able to defuse a tense situation with a witty joke. And, of course, this is excessive French politeness. In no case, even when dead drunk, even when near death, should one forget about the basics of politeness - when greeting, shake hands with every man; warmly thank you for the service provided; when expressing a request, do not forget to say “please”; and when leaving, even if in a hurry, you must say goodbye to everyone and kiss the ladies’ hands. Otherwise, you may easily no longer be accepted in society. Simply put, savoir vivre is the ability to live with taste. It is this that gives France such a strong attractiveness, real magnetism.

Love of freedom and penchant for monumentalism

A true Parisian considers himself free - in the sense that he puts his interests above everything else. He can cross the road when the light is red or go to the cash register without queuing. He's with light feeling own superiority applies to representatives of other nationalities. The British are too boring for him, the Slavs are poorly educated, the Americans are stingy and hypocritical. Why, he is a Parisian, he is of blue blood! He knows how to negotiate and defend his opinion.

However, at the same time French freedom implies responsibility for one’s actions, in contrast to Russian freedom, which almost always equals anarchy and chaos. And, unfortunately, few Russians are brought up in the spirit of love and respect for themselves - rather, it is constant dissatisfaction with themselves, lack of faith in their strengths, disappointment and a feeling of dissatisfaction.

We treat Europeans with awe, while the French look down on everyone except themselves. Maybe that's why Parisian architects suffer from gigantomania? However, even it has truly French features - new buildings fit into the landscape so well and look so aesthetically pleasing that sometimes you can’t tell whether it’s two hundred years old or a couple of decades old. And no ridiculous bad taste spoiling the landscape - only sophistication and style.

Political correctness

The French are very scrupulous when it comes to political correctness. If there is a gang operating in Paris that includes Africans or Arabs, they will never concentrate on this! They would rather focus on whites, even if they are a minority there. Gradually, this behavior led to the fact that the emigrants became more and more unbridled, they rob and kill with almost impunity, and the French press only reproachfully wags its finger and explains all this as the vices of bourgeois society.

What kind of portrait of a true Parisian is he?

According to romantic stereotypes, the French are great ladies' men and tireless lovers, they are seductive and chivalrously polite, courteous and witty, courageous and ambitious. However, for the most part, these images are inspired to us by films about France and the heroes of the novels of Alexandre Dumas. In reality, not everything is so rosy. The average Frenchman nowadays is quite nervous and irritable. Those to whom the salary seems low are constantly dissatisfied that it is not increased. Those who have decent earnings complain that they are lowering them.

The peasants are on strike because they are importing huge amount cheaper foreign food. Small shopkeepers criticize supermarkets, because of which their business cannot withstand competition and generate losses. Civil servants have consistently good salaries, but even they are not completely satisfied - they are not satisfied with the number of privileges they are entitled to. Young people are afraid of being left without work - even a diploma with honors does not guarantee a good job.

Schoolchildren smoke and indulge in alcohol. Isn't it a familiar picture? France is also at a crossroads, but people are not giving up and are looking for ways out. The focus is on the development and promotion of high technologies in industry. Therefore, today the portrait of a successful, self-realized Frenchman is as follows: he is a qualified specialist, an employee of a large international company, elegantly and expensively dressed, and never parting with a laptop and telephone. Plus, despite all ideas about the French, he is an exemplary family man and a caring father. Now in France this is considered good manners.

That's how they are, the French. There may be some things worth learning from them, some things we should follow their example, not forgetting that every nation is beautiful and unique in its own way!

General history. History of modern times. 7th grade Burin Sergey Nikolaevich

§ 6. France in the 16th–17th centuries: the triumph of absolutism

Main features French absolutism

France entered the 16th century. a strong and wealthy state, with a population of at least 15 million people, ready to fight for the supremacy of their country in Europe. But the unification of the country did not yet mean its centralization, which presupposed the subordination of all subjects to the power of the monarch.

In the 16th century in France, as in many other European countries, a new structure of the state was taking shape - an absolute monarchy, or absolutism; it reached its highest level of development only in the second half of the 17th century. Royal power gradually overcame the obstacles that faced it (the rights and privileges of individual provinces, cities, judiciary, population groups). In theory, it became unlimited, or absolute.

Already in the first half of the 16th century. the kings, without convening the Estates General, decided for themselves critical issues management. Francis I (reigned 1515–1547) subjugated French Church, having received, by agreement with the Pope, the right to appoint bishops and abbots to positions. His son Henry II was the first of the French monarchs to be called “Your Majesty” - previously only German emperors bore such a title.

The royal court played an increasingly important role, gathering the most noble nobles of France and costing the treasury enormous amounts of money. His magnificent ceremony embodied the power of royal power. Thanks to the court, the monarch had the opportunity to control the behavior of the elite of the nobility. The nobles got a chance to attract the attention of the sovereign and improve their position at the expense of royal favors. Those deprived of them organized conspiracies against the royal ministers and favorites.

In the XVI–XVII centuries. the number has increased noticeably French army Consequently, military spending also increased. To cover them, the government increased previous taxes and introduced new ones. The development of the tax system contributed to the strengthening of absolutism. But managing the increasingly complex state mechanism would have been impossible without professional officials, whose numbers increased in the 16th–17th centuries. many times. It was the officials, who lived on the income from their positions and therefore depended on the sovereign, who were the most reliable support of royal power in the centralization of the country. At the same time, the role of the estate-representative body - the Estates General - became smaller than before.

Francis I and Charles V, the most powerful monarchs of the first half XVI c., enter Paris. Artist F. Zuccari

Empty treasuries often forced monarchs to sell positions, including the right to transfer them by inheritance. Many positions gave the right to the title of nobility. Gradually, their buyers formed a special “nobility of the robe” (so named after the characteristic judicial attire). It differed markedly from the traditional “sword nobility”, which still strived for military service and who despised the “judges.”

First half of the 16th century - a time of prosperity for France, the era of strengthening royal power, conquests to Italy - the Italian Wars (1494–1559), the flowering of culture. But at the same time, the ideas of the Reformation penetrated the country, which contributed to France’s slide into the abyss of the Religious Wars and became an obstacle to the further establishment of absolutism.

What is the difference between the unification of a country and its centralization?

Religious wars

IN mid-16th century V. In France, especially in the south of the country, Calvinism quickly spread. French Calvinists were called Huguenots (from German. Eidgenossen– allies, i.e. residents of the Swiss Confederation; it was from there that it entered France new faith). The number of supporters of the Reformation grew.

In 1559, King Henry II died at a knight's tournament. His sons Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, who successively ruled after the death of their father, lacked firmness. The control of royal power over the nobility prone to rebellion weakened. As a result, two parties with different religious orientations arose and sought to seize power. The Catholics were led by the Dukes of Giza, the Protestants were led by relatives ruling dynasty, kings of Navarra from the Burbo family. Both sides sought foreign help: Catholics from the King of Spain, Huguenots from Elizabeth I of England, German Lutherans and the Swiss. Many French nobles, who were left idle after the end of the Italian Wars, joined these parties. Tension in the country grew.

St. Bartholomew's Night. Artist F. Dubois

In 1562, Catholics massacred the Huguenots, who retaliated. The Religious Wars began, which were at the same time civil wars. The country was swept by a wave of violence.

In 1572 there seemed to be a reconciliation. Many Huguenot nobles then came to Paris for the wedding of their leader, the Protestant Henry of Navarre, with the sister of the French king Charles IX, a Catholic. Marguerite Valois?. And then the Guises dealt a cruel blow, organizing a massacre of the Huguenots. It began in Paris on the night of St. Bartholomew's Day and went down in history as St. Bartholomew's Night. Thousands of Protestants were killed in the capital and provinces. In response, the Huguenots took control large territory in the south of France.

In the course of further struggle, the French royal dynasty Valois was stopped; the closest heir to the crown turned out to be the Huguenot Henry of Navarre. He ascended the throne in 1589 under the name of Henry IV, marking the beginning of the reign of the Bourbon dynasty. It was fearless warrior and a resourceful politician who changed his faith more than once for political reasons. He was supported by both Protestants and many Catholics, tired of endless wars. But Henry IV soon became convinced that only Catholicism would bring him the support of the majority of the French, especially the Parisians. Deciding that “Paris is worth a mass,” he once again changed his faith, and the capital of France took his side.

What is the meaning of the expression “Paris is worth a mass”? Why masses?

Tired France longed for peace. This was also prompted by the uprisings of the war-ravaged peasantry. In 1598, in Nantes, the king issued an edict (decree) on religious tolerance. Catholicism remained the official religion of France, but Huguenots had equal rights with Catholics; they were allowed to perform divine services according to their rites everywhere except Paris. As a guarantee of the execution of the edict, La Rochelle and some other fortified cities in the south of the state were transferred to the Huguenots.

Henry IV managed to quickly restore the country's economy after devastating wars and strengthen his power and the international prestige of France. However, in 1610 he was killed by a fanatical Catholic.

State activities of Cardinal Richelieu

Henry IV's son, King Louis XIII, transferred state affairs to his first minister. In 1624–1642 The government was headed by Cardinal Richelieu. Unsurpassed master intrigue, he held his post until his death, although his enemies were the king's wife, mother and brother. An outstanding politician, the cardinal developed and consistently implemented broad program action, striving to make France a powerful power, ruled by a strong central government. Rights and privileges of provinces or institutions, estates and religious groups were observed only when it did not contradict the interests of the monarchy.

Louis XIII

The Huguenots opposed this policy. Richelieu acted decisively: those led by him royal troops La Rochelle was besieged and taken. The Huguenots were pardoned, but were taken away from them political rights, and at the same time the fortified cities that guaranteed these rights. An important step was taken towards the religious and at the same time political unity of the country.

The highest nobility defended its independence from the state with all its might. There was no end to the intrigues and conspiracies of the nobles against Richelieu.

But the king trusted him completely, and the plots ended in failure.

A real disaster for France XVII V. there were duels in which hundreds of nobles died every year. Richelieu saw the nobility as the main support of the kingdom, and therefore believed that the nobles had the right to sacrifice their lives only in the name of France and the king. The cardinal issued edicts against duels and severely punished their violators.

Cardinal Richelieu. Artist F. de Champagne

Richelieu's vigorous activity covered the most different sides life of the state. He reformed finance, patronized the development of industry and trade, and encouraged the seizure of colonies. Being generous philanthropist, The cardinal believed that literature and art should also promote the ideals of absolutism. On his initiative, the first French newspaper began to be published.

The main opponents of France in Europe under Richelieu remained the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), France, at the cost of extreme effort, nevertheless defeated Spain. As a result of the victory, the country expanded its borders and achieved dominance in Europe.

"Sun King"

After the death of Louis XIII, his five-year-old son Louis XIV (reigned 1643–1715) ascended the throne. Real power passed to the Queen Mother Anne of Austria and the first minister, Cardinal Mazarini, who continued Richelieu's policy. The situation in France was difficult: the country was devastated by the Thirty Years' War, taxes were constantly rising. The general discontent of the people was expressed by the Parisian parliament. (At that time, in France, parliaments were the supreme courts, which had considerable rights; the most influential of them was the Parisian one.) Its members demanded to limit the growth of taxes and stop the abuses of the authorities. Both the aristocracy and masses. In 1648, a rebellion began against Mazarin's policies; it was called the Fronde (fr. front– sling). The unrest continued until 1653, after which Mazarin began to pursue his previous policy.

When Cardinal Mazarin died in 1661, 22-year-old Louis XIV declared that from now on he himself would be first minister, and from then on he did not let go of power. Convinced of her Divine origin, the king did not tolerate opposition to his will. He sought to strengthen the unity of the country, expand its borders and strengthen the primacy of France in Europe.

Louis XIV. Artist G. Rigo

The “Sun King”—as Louis XIV was called by court flatterers—ruled the country with the help of a royal council. But the council only discussed matters; decisions were always made by the monarch. He appointed ministers and other officials and administered justice. Based on his letter, any person could be sent to prison without trial. From all his subjects, even the most noble, the king demanded that all his whims be fulfilled. “Subjects have no rights,” he said, “they have only responsibilities.”

The true embodiment of the spirit of absolutism was the grandiose royal residence built by order of Louis XIV in Versailles, near Paris. The construction of the palace and the development of the park lasted several decades, costing the treasury an astronomical sum. The very composition of the ensemble placed the monarch at the center of all life: the axis of symmetry invisibly passed through the statue of the king in the front courtyard and the royal bedroom located in the center of the palace. Indeed, the entire life of the court revolved around the person of the monarch: his dressing and meals were turned into solemn ceremonies with the participation of all the highest nobility. The palace with its park and magnificent court festivities served as a role model for other monarchs.

View of the Palace of Versailles. Artist P. Patel

The beginning of the long reign of Louis XIV was marked by considerable successes. The king knew how to find capable and devoted assistants. Notable among them was Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683), who led the country’s finances and economy for 20 years. Colbert patronized the development of manufactories and protected them from foreign competition with the help of high duties on the import of relevant products from abroad. This policy was called "protectionism". On Colbert's initiative, roads were improved in France, a fleet was built, and trading companies were created. Under the careful tutelage of the authorities, the country's economy strengthened, although France in this regard lagged behind England and the Netherlands.

Jean Baptiste Colbert. Artist K. Lefebvre

Striving for the political and religious unity of the country, Louis XIV brutally persecuted the Huguenots and forced them to convert to Catholicism. In 1685, the king revoked the Edict of Nantes on Tolerance and banned the Protestant faith in the country. This decision had severe consequences for France. About 200 thousand Huguenots found refuge in Protestant countries. The economy was hit hard by the mass emigration of artisans and business people. Religious unity was never achieved: the remaining Huguenots secretly maintained their faith. Emigration of the Huguenots and popular uprisings, hunger and desolation within the country, heavy defeats on the battlefields - this was the sad result of the reign of the “Sun King”.

How domestic politics Louis XIV was similar to the actions of his predecessors and how was it different from them?

Let's sum it up

In the XVI–XVII centuries. In France, as in a number of other countries, an absolute monarchy was established. It relied on the nobility, but also took into account the interests of the entrepreneurial strata. Having survived difficult trials during the Wars of Religion, absolutism intensified under the reign of Richelieu and reached its peak during the reign of Louis XIV.

Favorite (from lat. favor- favor) - a favorite of a high-ranking official, receiving benefits and advantages from his patronage.

Maecenas - a wealthy patron of the sciences and arts; the word comes from the name of a Roman who became famous for his patronage of poets and artists.

Protectionism – economic policy state aimed at protecting national economy from foreign competition.

1624–1642 - Richelieu's reign.

1. What features characterize an absolute monarchy?

2. How did it happen that the spread of Protestant ideas in France led to the Wars of Religion? Was this inevitable?

3. Why did King Louis XIII always support Richelieu, even when he was at enmity with his wife, mother and brother?

4. What were the absolutist features of the reign of Louis XIV?

5. What is protectionism? By what methods was it carried out? What results did it lead to?

1. Compare the policy towards the Huguenots under Henry IV, Richelieu and Louis XIV. What explains its changes?

2. Write down in a notebook and explain the following concepts and terms: “absolutism”, “nobility of the robe”, “nobility of the sword”, “Huguenots”, “edict”.

3. Read excerpts from Richelieu’s “Political Testament” addressed to Louis XIII and summing up the experience political activity cardinal:

“I promised your Majesty ... to crush the Huguenot party, to break the arrogance of the nobles, to bring all subjects to the fulfillment of their duties and to raise your name among foreign nations to the level at which it should be ...

The nobility must be considered as one of the main nerves of the state, which can greatly contribute to its preservation and strengthening... Although the nobles deserve to be treated well when they do well, one must be strict with them if they neglect what they are obliged to do. birth. Those who, falling behind the valor of their ancestors, shrink from serving the crown with sword and life, deserve to be deprived of the benefits of their birth and forced to bear part of the burden of the people...

If the people were too prosperous, they could not be kept within the boundaries of their duties... They should be compared to a mule, which, having become accustomed to heaviness, deteriorates more from prolonged rest than from work...

Many sovereigns lost their states and their subjects because they did not maintain the troops necessary to preserve them, for fear of overburdening their subjects with taxes, and some subjects fell into slavery to their enemies because they too much desired freedom under the rule of their natural monarch ... "

What did Richelieu see as his merits? Analyze Richelieu's ideas about the nobility and the common people.

§ 18. England and France in the 11th–13th centuries Consequences of the Norman conquest of England The Norman conquest changed the life of England. All over the country, the invaders who came from France built their castles, and in London they erected a gloomy mass - the royal fortress of the Tower. From the locals