Each era enriches the language with new words. During periods most active socio-political and cultural life The influx of new words is especially increasing throughout the nation. In our country there are exclusively favorable conditions to enrich vocabulary. Turbulent events last decade- camber totalitarian state, rejection of the command-administrative system, collapse of the socio-economic and spiritual foundations that had developed over 70 years public life- made fundamental changes in all spheres of human activity.
The emergence of new concepts also led to an influx of new words into the Russian language. They replenished a variety of thematic groups vocabulary, from the names of states ( Russian Federation, Republic of Sakha, Tuva, CIS), government agencies (Duma, department, municipality, mayor's office, federal Service employment of Russia), officials (manager, prefect, sub-prefect), educational institutions(lyceum, gymnasium), representatives public organizations, movements (Trudorossy, Demorossy), etc. to the names of new commercial enterprises (LLP [limited liability partnership], JSC [joint stock company]) and the realities that have become signs of economic restructuring (voucher, privatization, shares, dividends). Many of these words were present in the Russian language as foreign names for concepts from the life of other states (mayor, prefecture), or as historicisms assigned to the era pre-revolutionary Russia(department, lyceum, gymnasium). Now this vocabulary is perceived as new and is becoming very common.
The fate of new words in a language develops differently: some quickly gain recognition, others pass the test of time and are consolidated, but not immediately, and sometimes are not recognized at all and are forgotten. Words that become widespread become part of the active vocabulary. So, in different periods XX century The words university, educational program, salary, cosmonaut, lunar rover, chewing gum, shuttle business, feds, etc. entered the Russian language. At the end of the 90s, they no longer seem new to us.
In contrast, words not fully mastered by the language retain a connotation of unusualness. Thus, the word foresight, which appeared in the 1930s, has now given way to its synonym - television; in the first name of transmitting an image over a distance, the connotation of novelty and freshness has not yet been erased, since it has not become part of the active vocabulary. Neologisms that appear in the language as names of new objects for a long time may remain part of passive vocabulary if relevant concepts will not receive universal recognition. We cannot foresee the fate of such neologisms as pulsar (an electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofidoc (kefir enriched with biofidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections), euro (European currency unit). But time will pass, and they will declare themselves or be forgotten.
Of stylistic interest are new words that we have not yet gotten used to, that are not yet in dictionaries. Almost all new words remain in this capacity for some time. But over time, some of them lose the stylistic connotation of novelty, others even become archaic (compare the historicisms: Commissars, Stakhanovite, Red Army). Of the latest innovations, this fate is reserved for the notorious vouchers, the financial company MMM, the State Emergency Committee, etc.
Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language - M., 1997
Are you familiar with the situation when you speak English and cannot fully express your thought because you don’t know the right word?
Small lexicon- a common problem. Its size determines how freely you can express your thoughts in English.
In this article you will learn:
- How to learn English words to expand your vocabulary;
- The best ways to expand your vocabulary;
- 3 tips on how to quickly replenish your stock English words.
How to learn words correctly to increase your vocabulary of English words?
The main reason for the lack of vocabulary growth is the wrong method of learning new words. This is when you learn words, and after 3-5 days you remember only a small part.
If you learn English words correctly, your vocabulary will gradually expand, and you will not forget words. Follow these guidelines to avoid wasting your time.
1. Teach less words, but do it well.
There is no point in learning a lot of words if you end up remembering only a few. Don’t take 50 words at once. It’s better to take 10-15 words, but work with them properly.
2. Use an English-English dictionary.
Of course, it’s easier to look at the translation of the word in electronic translator or Russian-English dictionary. But using an English-English dictionary gives certain “advantages”:
- You will easily understand the meaning of the word. After all, in such dictionaries it is not the translation of the word that is given, but its meaning (in English).
- Find out similar (synonyms) and opposite words(antonyms) that are given for each word.
- IN English-English dictionary are given set expressions where this word is used.
On entry levels should be used bilingual dictionary(English-Russian).
3. Look not just one, but all meanings of a word.
Most often, one word has several meanings, and they can be completely different. For example, the word break can mean both a hole in something (crack, hole) and free time from work (break).
How more values one word you know, the more correctly you can use it.
4. Always use words you know.
No matter how well you remember a word, if you don't use it, you will forget it. Constantly use the words you have learned.
If you do not have the opportunity to communicate in English every day, then you can mentally describe what you see and learn to think in English.
Attention: Do you want to overcome the language barrier and speak English? Find out in Moscow how our students begin to speak in 1 month!
Best Ways to Expand Your English Vocabulary
These are the most popular ways that will help you learn many new words and expressions.
1. Watch movies and TV series in English.
Who doesn't like to watch interesting film or series? By doing this in English, you will expand your vocabulary.
Be sure to choose a movie/series that suits your level of English proficiency. After all, if there is too much in it unknown words, you'll just get tired of watching it.
You can also focus on what vocabulary you need most. For example, watching the TV series Friends can improve your vocabulary everyday expressions, when watching the series “The Office” - working vocabulary.
2. Listen English songs and podcasts.
In songs you can always find many interesting and useful expressions. But passive listening will never increase your vocabulary. This needs to be done correctly.
Listening to podcasts is also very helpful. You can choose a podcast based on your level and choose any topic that interests you.
3. Read English books and articles.
Reading is another popular way to improve your vocabulary. However, do not forget that if you want to remember words, you need to work through them, and not just write a translation in pencil over an unknown word.
4. Solve crosswords and play games.
Nowadays there are many games that are aimed at training and memorizing new words. Solve crosswords, put words together from letters, search the right words etc. All this will help you expand your vocabulary and once again repeat words you already know.
Movies, TV series, songs, podcasts and games will help you gradually increase your vocabulary. But what if you need to top it up within a short period of time? We will reveal 3 ways that will allow you to do this.
3 tips on how to quickly expand your English vocabulary
1. Learn lists of words on one topic.
Learning words that share one theme is much easier than learning them all mixed together.
To do this, you need to take 10-20 words related to one topic. For example, animals, interior items, work, travel, etc. Be sure to choose a topic that is interesting and necessary for you. Why should you learn car parts if you don't experience it in real life?
Have you learned words about work? Compose short story about what duties you perform and how your work day goes. If you don't have a job yet, dream and tell us about your dream job.
If you are learning a language in a group, you can act out skits. It's very fun and useful. Imagine that one person is an employer, and the other comes for an interview.
2. Learn the most commonly used words.
There are words that people use very often, and there are those that they use rarely.
It is much more useful to learn words that you can use in any situation. For example, in the list of words “work” it is much more useful to include the words: employer, employee, hire, fire, work schedule, etc. These are the words you will really need.
If you teach specific words, not related to your work, you are unlikely to use them. And, as I wrote above, if you don’t use words, you will forget them.
3. Learn the words that are around you.
This exercise will allow you to test and improve your English vocabulary. Look around the room/office/park/restaurant where you spend time. What do you see?
Name each item you see. If you don't know a word, write it down. Eventually you will create your own list of words that you can learn. Thanks to it, you will know the names of objects around you.
So, if you follow all the methods described in the article, you can significantly expand your vocabulary. And you definitely won’t have a situation where you want to say or ask something, but don’t know the right English word.
Friends, how do you learn English words?
The changes taking place in society primarily affected the spheres of politics and economics. New political and economic terms: “new political thinking”, “open civil society", "single economic space", etc.
For neologisms recent years a more productive way of education was descriptive (open joint stock company, network marketing, etc.) in contrast to the previously active tendency to save linguistic means and word formation methods:
1. forming words from phrases: train, record book, progressive;
2. formation of words using the zero suffix: heating, sewing, firing;
3. phrases: car park, cinder concrete, rail laying machine.
However, the abbreviation method still remains common: CJSC (closed joint stock company), Central Administrative District (central administrative district).
Disputes about the benefits and harms of borrowed words have not subsided for many decades. On the one hand, the speeches of linguists against the use of foreign words unnecessarily evoke a keen response and sympathy from most people. On the other hand, the emergence of new words is caused by the emergence of new realities of life that did not exist before and for which there is no linguistic analogue in the Russian language (see the same names of professions: logistics, marketer, office manager; or: mixer, toaster, mobile (cellular ) telephone, fax, pager).
The attitude towards borrowed words is not only linguistic, but also public problem, requiring a thoughtful and careful approach.
Along with updating part outdated vocabulary, returned to active dictionary(gymnasium, lyceum, banker, governor, cadets, liberal democrats), in the vocabulary of the Russian language there is a process of de-actualization of part of the vocabulary. The reason for the de-actualization of whole lexical groups was the dismantling of existing political and economic systems. Words and phrases that have lost their relevance: five-year plan, collective farmer, leader, pioneer, Komsomol member, shock worker of communist labor, winner of socialist competition, etc.
Word collocations
A particular difficulty, from the point of view of word usage, is the compatibility of words. The possibilities of combining words with each other are very different. Functional parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions) have the greatest ability to combine with other words. Significant parts of speech can be divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within the limits of their subject-logical connections: specific noun (man, house, book), verbs ( live, know, go), especially - auxiliary verbs (to be, become, begin), evaluative adjective ( good, big). Other words have limited compatibility ( possess, ticklish, blue).
Restrictions on the compatibility of words can be semantic: there should be no contradictions in the concepts being connected (you cannot use expressions like huge house, square circle, blooming January).
Combining some words into phrases becomes impossible due to their grammatical nature ( quickly - sad, five - laugh). And finally, restrictions in compatibility can be caused by the lexical features of words (it is customary to say win a victory, not accepted - defeat; accepted - laughter, evil, fear takes over, not accepted - joy takes).
Errors in the combination of words are often made in the essays of schoolchildren and applicants, and in students’ oral answers in exams. For example: “A child is born with a blank slate in his head, and something correct needs to be written on it”; “His character is not Nordic, but frail, and maybe even weak, but he carefully hides it”; " Comprehensive program education consists of pieces various items and labor, which is also studied as a subject.”
To avoid such errors, referring to special dictionaries that contain typical examples compatibility of certain words with others, for example, to the “Dictionary of compatibility of words in the Russian language” / Ed. P.N. Denisov and V.V. Morkovkina.
Norms for the compatibility of words cannot be too rigid, given once and for all.
In a language, there is a redistribution of connections between words. Much of what was generally accepted in the language earlier becomes outdated and becomes unusual for the present time. For example: the instigator of the story(now the meaning of the word “instigator” is narrowing), hotbed of education, promote processes, come from the Komsomol. At the same time, many new phrases appear and are legitimized by speech practice: a set of problems, a last minute trip, a computer virus, cellular, helpline, luxury train.
1. Outline the role of figurative and expressive means of language in verbal communication.
2. Name the paths and describe them.
3. List stylistic figures, give them a description.
4. What are the conditions for successful word choice?
5. What is the reason for the replenishment of Russian vocabulary?
6. What can serve as a limitation in the combination of words?
6.7. Seminar lesson*.
The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way in its development: it consists not only of the eternal Russian words, and even words taken from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched Russian language throughout the entire process historical development. Some borrowings were made in ancient times, others - comparatively not so long ago.
The Russian vocabulary was expanded on two fronts:
1. New words were created from word-forming parts existing in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the eternal Russian vocabulary expanded and developed: head, throat, heart, palm, kind, young, dog, squirrel, ladle, ruble, throw, very, currant, necessary.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of economic, political and cultural ties Russian people with other nations: sandwich(German), pate(German), pavilion(French) pasta(Italian) soprano(Italian).
The composition of Russian vocabulary, based on the beliefs of its origin, can be schematically presented in the table:
Eternally Russian words
Taken words
Latin,
Greek,
Scandinavian,
Germanic,
French,
English and other borrowings
A. Eternal Russian vocabulary
The eternal Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in its origin: it consists of several layers that differ in the time of their formation.
1. The most ancient among the eternal Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists' guesses, V-IV millennia BC. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living over a wide area. So, according to the research of some linguists, it extended from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was a Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization. Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages (for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).
2. Another layer of eternal Russian vocabulary consists of words Pan-Slavic, inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language, which served as the source for all Slavic languages. This base language existed in the prehistoric era in the area between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. AD The common Slavic language collapsed, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. General Slavic words they simply stand out in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.
Among common Slavic words there are words various parts speeches:
Common Slavic vocabulary has about 2 thousand words, yet this is the core Russian dictionary, it includes more common, stylistically neutral words, used both in oral and written speech.
3. The 3rd layer of eternal Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language Eastern Slavs, one of the 3 groups of ancient Slavic languages (Slavic languages that had as their source the ancient common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language, in terms of sound, grammatical and lexical features separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern).
The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. AD on the ground of Eastern Europe. TO tribal unions, who lived here, the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities are emerging. Therefore, the words remaining in our language from this period are known, most often, in the Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.
As part of the East Slavic vocabulary it is possible to distinguish:
as well as other lexical-semantic groups.
4. The 4th layer of eternal Russian words is actually Russian vocabulary, formed after the 14th century, i.e. in the era independent development Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. The language of this period already has its own words that actually belong to the Russian vocabulary.
In fact, Russian words are distinguished, most often, by their derivative basis: bricklayer, leaflet, locker room, community, intervention and under.
In fact, the Russian vocabulary also contains words with foreign roots that have gone through Russian word formation and are “overgrown” with Russian suffixes and prefixes: partisanship, non-partisanship, anger; ruler, glass, teapot; words with complex basis: radio center, locomotive, Also great amount complex abbreviated words that replenished the language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry enterprise, wall newspaper and etc.
Eternally Russian vocabulary and this moment continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of word-formation resources of the language, ultimately the most various processes, corresponding to Russian word formation.
B. Borrowings from Slavic languages
1. A special place in the Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Church Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms(Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the ancient Slavic language, well known in Rus' since the spread of Christianity (988).
Being the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time he experienced a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and himself, in turn, left an imprint on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect countless instances of confusion between these similar languages.
The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful; it enriched the Russian language, making it more expressive and flexible. Namely, Old Church Slavonicisms began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were not yet proper names.
As part of the Old Church Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, it is possible to distinguish a few groups:
Old Slavonic borrowings have corresponding phonetic, word-formation and semantic features.
The phonetic features of Old Church Slavonicisms include:
Old Church Slavonicisms retain Old Church Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, and a complex base corresponding to Old Church Slavonic word formation:
Systematization of Old Church Slavonicisms is also probable, based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words:
Old Church Slavonicisms of the 2nd and 3rd groups are not perceived by speakers of the modern Russian language as alien - they have become so Russified that they actually do not differ from the eternal Russian words. Unlike similar, genetic, Old Church Slavonic words, the words of the first group retain connections with Old Church Slavonic, in bookish language; many of them in the past century were an integral part of poetic vocabulary: Percy, cheeks, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young and under. Now they are perceived as poeticism, and linguist G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavicisms.
2. From other closely related Slavic languages came into the Russian language individual words, which actually do not stand out among the eternal Russian vocabulary. From Ukrainian and Belarusian languages names were borrowed household items, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. Many words came to us from Polish language: place, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Through Polish language borrowed Czech and other Slavic words: ensign, cheeky, corner etc.
Source - chapters from the manual by Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. "Modern Russian language":
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