Instructions
Take a closer look at the person while assessing. Pay attention to the eyes - their color, size and location in relation to the bridge of the nose can tell a lot about character person. Dark eyes reveal a person’s hot-tempered and emotionally explosive character - such people are distinguished by sensuality, they are sociable and intelligent, witty and very selective in their choice of friends. People with light eyes are often dreamy, sentimental and romantic. Rich eye color (blue, green or dark gray) reveals people who are romantic, but often arrogant and arrogant. People with small eyes are closed, silent and gloomy, while those with big eyes often become leaders, they are courageous and sensual. Swollen eyelids distinguish people who are addicted and prone to wild pastimes.
Behavior person- the key to unraveling his character. Closed people those who prefer loneliness and privacy are called. Their opposite is extroverts, who are open and generous with emotions, love noise and crowds. Secretive people may be melancholic or phlegmatic. Phlegmatic people are extremely slow, think about their every action, and melancholic people often become depressed, sad and revel in self-pity. Active people, most likely, choleric and sanguine people. Cholerics are unrestrained and abrupt, impulsive and absent-minded. Sanguine people are characterized by quick enthusiasm, which disappears just as quickly.
Appearance person and his figure can tell a lot about him. Short fat people sociable and talkative, easy to communicate with, they have good feeling humor. Well-built people of tall or average height are usually purposeful and assertive, striving to become leaders. Asthenics have a rather fragile physique, are uncommunicative and reserved, but they love power and are extremely ambitious.
If you have the opportunity to study handwriting person, then you can get an idea about its owner. Energetic people have straight, upward handwriting. Capricious people usually do capital letters disproportionately large. And if the first letters are slightly higher than the lowercase ones, then the person is modest and unassuming.
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- How to recognize people by their behavior
Did you know that in order to recognize a person, it is enough to communicate with him for 10 minutes? If you want your interlocutor to easily understand you and get to know you the way you need, you should know how to behave in what situation. Here we will talk about gestures, facial expressions and even appearance.
Instructions
And indeed, by the behavior of the interlocutor you can even find out what he carefully hides. However, in order to see the whole truth about a person by his voice, facial expressions and gestures, certain skills are required in recognizing the meaning of certain gestures and expressions.
Take a closer look. You can also tell a lot by looking. For example, if your interlocutor is not directly at you, but to the side, he has something to hide, and do not expect openness from him. If a person looks continuously into your eyes throughout the conversation, it means that he is interested in you much more than the subject of your interest.
Pay attention to the smile. You can make the first conclusions about a person by the way he smiles. A smile can be open and sincere - it means your interlocutor is friendly. But “squeezing out” a smile and its artificiality will indicate that the desire is not so great. It has long been known that with an insincere smile, only the muscles around the lips contract. Sincere open man smiles at everyone. A sign of nervousness is a crooked smile. And if the eyebrows are raised into a smile, this means a readiness to communicate and even that the person can obey you. Noticing that a person does not blink at all while smiling, there follows some hidden or obvious threat from him.
Listen to the voice. Confident loud voice indicates that the person is optimistic. A sign of tension can be not only a crooked smile, but also an unstable timbre of the voice. A shrill note in the voice will tell you that your interlocutor is worried about something.
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Depression is not Bad mood, but a serious illness that requires immediate treatment from a specialist. A bad mood is a temporary depressed state that goes away after one or two days. Depression cannot go away on its own, and even professional treatment does not always help, since, first of all, the cause of the disease must be eliminated. There are many signs by which a psychiatrist makes a diagnosis.
Instructions
If you are in a bad mood, feeling anxious, depressed, empty, you don’t want to see or talk to anyone, this may be caused by stress and will go away in a couple of days. If the condition does not improve, but worsens for seven or more days, then depression can be assumed, which should be diagnosed.
Keep an eye on the bite site - it may turn red and swell slightly. Sometimes a person notices the occurrence of pulling and aching pain At the site of injury, the bite may itch a little.
Hydrophobia is one of the most striking and indicative symptoms of rabies in humans. The victim may suddenly begin to experience an incomprehensible feeling of fear of water - refuse to drink, and then completely panic at the mere sight of water.
Photophobia - at first it is simply difficult to look at the light, then convulsions begin to appear from any irritation. Painful spasms numb the throat, face, and cramp the limbs.
Convulsive attacks may be followed by sudden strong excitement, the person begins to show unjustified aggression, behaves very violently, he is tormented. The person does not understand where he is, tries to run somewhere, attacks and behaves inappropriately. Sometimes this stage is missing.
Increased salivation occurs when the rabies virus has infected salivary glands. Sometimes the whole body becomes covered with profuse sticky sweat. During periods of excitement, a person may experience cardiac arrest.
Paralysis follows immediately after convulsions and replaces them - this is a disease that usually follows. The person calms down, becomes lethargic and apathetic, paralysis of the limbs and paresis of the cranial nerves appear. Sudden paralysis of the respiratory and cardiac centers causes the death of the patient.
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When buying a used car, you can easily become a victim of an unscrupulous seller. When purchasing a car that has been restored after a serious accident, the buyer runs the risk of encountering a lot of problems during the further operation of the used car. Sometimes the repair is done so well that it becomes very difficult to recognize a damaged car, however, there are several simple ways How to protect yourself as much as possible from buying a car that has been in a serious accident.
Instructions
Inspect the car carefully. In a damaged car, the gaps between body parts are different from each other, and the color of individual parts is also different. This car was definitely painted.
Always inspect the vehicle in bright light. The car must be perfectly clean.
There is an old proven method that helps determine the presence of a thick layer of putty on the body. You should try sticking a weak magnet to various parts car body. Where there is a thick layer of putty, the magnet will stick worse than in places where there is none.
A plastic bumper after repair can be identified by its sound. If you knock on the bumper in different places, you can determine by the sound those places where a thicker layer of putty was applied.
Glasses and headlights can also help identify a damaged car. Very often the year of manufacture is indicated on the glass. If there are windows on the car different years release, then we can say that this car was in an accident. New headlights can also indicate a previous accident.
When inspecting the car, you need to lift the trunk mat and carefully examine the welds. In modern automotive industry, spot welding is mainly used. Auto repair shops often use semi-automatic welding machines when welding.
Inspect all visible seams under the hood of the car. Also check the hardness of the sealant used to cover the seams. If the hardness of the sealant is different, then this fact also indicates that this car has been to a body shop.
Be sure to check the wheel alignment: the wheel alignment angles must be within tolerance. If the geometry of the car body is broken, then it is better to refuse to buy this car.
Bend the rear and windshield seals. If the color of the paint underneath differs from the main color of the car body, then this indicates that the car has been painted. Similarly, it is necessary to consider the seals of the trunk lid and doors.
Ask the seller which service center the car was serviced at. If the car was serviced at a branded car service center, then you can find out all the details there. useful information about it, you just have to hint that after buying a car you will also be serviced by them.
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Is it worth trying to revive a dysfunctional relationship or is it futile?
Lack of trust
Honestly analyze your relationship: are you lying, hiding important things, unable to admit your mistakes? Then it is clear that your relationship is definitely not functioning properly. If you feel that your partner is hiding something, deceiving you, you cannot trust him, your relationship is deeply broken, it is worth thinking about whether it is worth continuing and whether such a relationship has further meaning.
Lack of respect
Respect is the foundation stone of a relationship. Even in ordinary friendship between people, it is inappropriate to show disrespect towards a friend, since this is clearly visible from the outside and does not carry positive results. Can you say that you value each other and treat each other with respect? Try listing at least 10 things you appreciate about your partner, and then see if he can put together a similar list. Once you stop respecting each other, your relationship is on a dangerous path and is doomed to fail.
Lack of space
No matter how in love you are, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week joint activities will reliably strangle your love. Lack of space and own interests is a reliable sign that something is wrong in your relationship and you should reconsider your views.
Emotional pressure
Do you want to go to a bachelorette party with your girlfriends, but your partner makes a scene with a famously faked heart attack? Constantly uses ultimatums and statements like: “If you want me, then...”? As soon as he enters into a relationship emotional blackmail, it's time to change something.
At night, a person takes the most comfortable position and behaves naturally, without hiding behind the usual masks. This is why some psychologists see a direct connection between true character, lifestyle and sleeping positions.
People who prefer to sleep on their backs, with their arms and legs slightly apart, can be described as strong, confident, balanced and calm. They are often characterized by vanity, the desire to achieve the respect of others, ambition, and determination. IN as a last resort such a pose may indicate inflated self-esteem and selfishness.
Often people who prefer to sleep on their back place their hands on their chest or stomach. This may indicate a desire to defend oneself, i.e. about less self-confidence and readiness for conflict.
If a person prefers to sleep on his stomach “in the star position”, i.e. stretching out your arms and legs different sides and thus occupying maximum space on the bed, most likely, he is characterized by a thirst for power, a desire to conquer and maintain his place in the Sun. Also, people who prefer this particular sleeping position are often distinguished by consistency and thoughtfulness of actions, the habit of strictly following the chosen plan, and a preference for a good strategy rather than spontaneity.
Those who like to sleep on their stomachs, with their arms outstretched to the sides, can boast of punctuality and high level responsibility. They are demanding of others, but no less demanding of themselves.
People who are insecure often prefer the fetal position: they curl up, pulling their knees to their chin. This is a strong defensive posture that can speak of fear of someone or something, a desire to find a good defender, or doubts about one’s capabilities. In addition, this option is often chosen by people who are suspicious and dependent on the opinions of others. However, we must not forget about external factors: A person can automatically assume the fetal position if they are cold in their sleep and want to warm up a little.
The pose on the side - both with extended and bent legs - distinguishes self-confident people with an analytical mind. A person who prefers to sleep on their side is usually reliable and able to remain calm even in extreme situations. Life is easier for him in cramped conditions. Such people experience difficult circumstances, a breakdown in relationships, and dismissal, but still much easier than those who prefer more “squeezed” sleeping positions. Finally, they are able to adapt to different situations and it’s easy to get along even with conflicting people.
Particular attention should be paid to the position of the hands. If a person clenches his fists in a dream and holds them near his chest or face, this may indicate internal aggression, strong negative emotions who do not find a way out, or about the bad consequences of the stress they have experienced. If a person needs to hold onto something with his hands in a dream, most likely he is dependent on other people and cannot stand loneliness. Such people need friends and loved ones and can “dissolve” in close people. Arms stretched above your head indicate passivity, while the habit of placing your palms under your head indicates a desire to demonstrate your intellectual abilities and strengthen self-esteem through praise from others.
Because of frequent stress and many negative factors with which life is full modern man, myocardial infarction became significantly younger. But an important reason for its development is a sedentary lifestyle, poor nutrition, abuse bad habits, tendency to atherosclerosis and high blood pressure, diabetes and obesity.
Instructions
Most often, myocardial infarction is manifested by severe symptoms that cannot be ignored. And timely help when they appear can prevent irreversible changes in the heart muscle, and sometimes even save lives, since this disease is quite sad.
Most Myocardial infarction is accompanied by severe, sharp pain in or behind the sternum. Often the pain radiates to left hand, shoulder blade, neck and jaw. Due to the fear of death, a short-term increase in blood pressure appears, which drops very quickly, which is accompanied by heart rhythm disturbances, cold extremities and cold sticky sweat.
Sometimes the main myocardial infarction is combined with pallor, nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Due to inflammation of the damaged tissue, on the second and third days after the onset, the temperature rises to 38°C.
The nature of myocardial pain is sudden, accompanied by a feeling of suffocation. This painful condition does not go away either during rest or after taking medications. Moreover, the pain becomes stronger, hinders movement and does not completely relieve pain. In addition to the typical symptoms of myocardial infarction, there may be pain in the (epigastric region) or (asthmatic form of myocardial infarction).
Unlike other heart diseases, such as coronary artery disease, which can manifest itself after physical or mental fatigue, myocardial infarction can occur without warning against the background of absolute health, wellness, during sleep and rest. However, it is often preceded by frequent short-term pain in the heart or behind the sternum.
In rare cases, myocardial infarction manifests itself with minor symptoms. And in this case it is transferred that “to”. However, this situation creates poor prognosis, since any damage to the heart muscle leads to the formation of a scar and, accordingly, to further disruption of the heart.
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An accurate diagnosis can only be made on the basis of an electrocardiogram, so if you have any pain in the heart, it is recommended to consult a doctor. Perhaps this will help prevent myocardial infarction, and if it occurs, alleviate the course of the disease and speed up the recovery process of the heart muscle.
- a disease caused by scabies mites. Very contagious. If a scabies mite larva has settled on your skin, you will feel the first signs of infection only after two weeks. How to recognize scabies? What signs will tell you that an infection has occurred?
Understanding psychology originated in late XIX centuries. Explanation mental life man has become main task psychological research this section science. This development was proposed by the German philosopher Dilthey; he argued that we can explain nature, but we must understand mental life.
How to understand a man
Very different from women's. This is understandable. From birth, boys and girls are raised according to different programs. Girls are future wives and mothers, guardians hearth and home. Boys are future men, the breadwinners of the family. Therefore, when girls play with dolls and sew clothes for them, boys help daddy repair the car, play football or go fishing.
After a while, the opposite sex begins to be attracted to each other, and it turns out that she does not like fishing and football, and he hates shopping. As a result, more and more often girls are asking the question: how to understand a guy? Psychology can give a lot of advice, but girls just have to use it correctly.
Many beauties try to take the guy’s place, try to think like him. We can say right away: this is not true. A girl can never think like a man because she is a girl. And it’s unlikely that a guy will be pleased to see next to him a beautiful soul mate with boyish habits.
Studying men on the first date
So, the study of the male essence can begin already on the first date. Unfortunately, they don't take hints at all. And if you lick your lips during a conversation, he will hope to continue the conversation. If during communication he extends his hand with his palm up, then this means his sympathy and desire to communicate. Well, if during a conversation a man has his legs crossed and his hands are in his pockets, this means that he is not in the mood for further communication. A large number of compliments should alert you; most likely, he does not take you seriously. You can also read a guy's intention in his eyes. For example, if a young man looks intently into your eyes or often raises his eyebrows up, this will mean that he likes you. Well, a constantly frowning man means reduced interest in your person. If a guy narrows his eyes and smiles at you, he's probably just flirting. This look invites you to continue without further.
Why don't men like to talk?
If it was successful, and the girl managed to understand the guy’s intentions, other problems appear. For example, many ladies complain that men don’t tell them how their day was and don’t ask their loved ones about it. Women are mistaken when they think that men don't care. They are simply accustomed to receiving condensed information about a problem and looking for a solution. A man is unlikely to be interested in hearing what color your colleague’s bag is or how many centimeters high her heels are. For such topics, it is better to find the free ears of a friend.
Another reason for disagreement is misunderstanding of women's hints. Yes, men need to say everything directly. They don't understand hints!
If you don’t understand why a man should go fishing or go to a bar with friends, then think about whether you can sit at work and not discuss your boss’s new hairstyle or haircut with your co-workers? Men talk about other topics, and they need these conversations just as much as you do. Therefore, there is no need to throw hysterics and scenes of jealousy, because then the guy will leave out of spite and will do this often. It is better to wish him good luck before fishing and give him warm clothes so that he does not freeze at night. He will be pleased by your trust. In the meantime, make good use of this evening. Go to the spa, visit a friend, or read a book.
A huge responsibility falls on women’s shoulders for creating comfort in the home, good relations, love, quiet life. Unfortunately, not everyone can cope with this, but you must remember that from time immemorial it was the woman who was considered the keeper of the hearth.
How to understand yourself
Psychology has been asking this question for a long time. Many psychologists have written scientific treatises on this topic. But no amount of work or advice will help if the person himself does not want it. So, if you decide to understand yourself, then you need to start small. Try to take 5 minutes for yourself every day. After all, this is quite a bit. It's probably best to meditate before bed. Every day ask yourself questions: why was I born, what do I love, what do I dream about, what will I leave behind? These questions will help you understand your essence, and you will take one step towards your knowledge.
The next step is whether you like what you do. If you are not happy with your job, you need to change it. You may have to change 10 jobs, but in the end you will find what suits you! Work should bring pleasure, not a bunch of negative emotions!
It's not scary to make a mistake - it's scary not to draw conclusions from it!
Don't be afraid to make mistakes. Many people, having taken the wrong step, “hug themselves into a corner” and close themselves off. They believe that it is better to sit quietly, and then there will be no mistakes. Eat famous expression: If you want to avoid criticism, say nothing, do nothing and be nothing. From this phrase you can understand that you need to fight. It is necessary to go through all the paths and learn from your mistakes!
Many methods in psychology teach us to know ourselves. One of these is trying something new in your life. You never You don't know how to play billiards? Learn!
And remember, Few people still believe in this, although scientists have long proven the correctness of this statement. Become the writer of your book of life. Describe your dreams and your vision of life every day, and believe me, you yourself will not notice when the book becomes a reality.
Communicating with people: how to understand their intentions
Another question that psychology studies is how to understand a person by gestures and facial expressions. Facial expressions are movement facial muscles, with the help of which you can determine a person’s mood.
Anger is manifested by tightly clenched teeth and lips, wrinkles on the forehead and a downcast gaze.
Fear can be identified by raised eyebrows drawn towards the bridge of the nose.
When a person feels disgust, the nose is wrinkled, lower lip and lowered eyebrows.
During sadness, the corners of the lips fall down, the person does not raise his eyes from the floor, and the pupils move very slowly, the eyebrows are drawn together on the bridge of the nose.
Joy is manifested by a smile and slightly. If a person does not squint while smiling, this means that it is fake.
Body position when communicating: what to pay attention to?
Understanding psychology allows you to understand a person's intentions by looking at the position of his head. Thus, a raised head speaks of self-confidence and openness to other people. And if it is tilted to the side, this means that the person is ready to compromise. A head hanging down reveals a weak and weak-willed person.
Hands can say a lot
Except for the head great value is also given to the hands. After all, their movements are practically not regulated by our subconscious. So, hands raised palms up is a good sign. The person wants to communicate with you. If a person walks with his hands behind his back, this is a sign of shyness and timidity. A man who puts his hands in his pockets is trying to hide his insecurity. Rubbing hands means contentment and presence positive emotions. Well, if during a conversation a person touches his face with his hands, he is trying to hide the truth from you. In other words, he's just lying.
Understanding psychology is a huge science that deals with man. With its help, people can get to know themselves, understand their interlocutors and loved ones. Understanding psychology will help anyone find the strength within themselves to create their own happiness at work and at home, among colleagues and family. Don't be afraid to make mistakes! Be afraid to remain a nobody!
This kind of psychology isdescription and analysis of the connection that is given to usoriginally and always in the form of life itself.
V. Dilypei
In the second half of the 19th century, the problem of mental(psyche - soul) reality as a mediator between two worlds; living and artificial (cultural). At the same time, the flow of mental (spiritual) phenomena - consciousness, emotions, will, etc. - into human relationships and man-made objects initiates ideas about the social world as a psychocultural complex.
objects (artificial sphere)
signs (representatives)
Attention is drawn to questions about the role of the “psychic” in the life of society: subjective freedom, the meaning of choice and will in human life, sign communication, value knowledge, etc. Spiritual life as a sphere of culture and creativity now acts as a socio-historical reality (reality). The new concept - “life” - appears as a world in which the totality of the spiritual interconnection of life units - individuals who continue to exist in communities - operates.
"In the Balsna school of neo-Kantianism, the problem of pluralism is developed in the doctrine of values-"axiological pluralism". There are two aspects to it. Firstly, the statement that any value concepts, systems are equal to the principle monism there is no place in knowledge. Secondly, that none of the values within this concept belongs to the leading and principle partisanship there is no place in knowledge. The rule that follows from axeological pluralism is that “everyone is right together, but no one is right individually.” All the most necessary and sublime values contradict each other. In addition, people who want the same thing always have mutually exclusive arguments. Therefore, it is impossible to serve only one value without trampling on the others to one degree or another. At the same time, the expediency of the decision cannot be proven rationally, and the struggle is the victory of one truth, if you are right all around, then your opponent is wrong all around. Therefore, one cannot give preference to any directions or trends, but one must only show eclecticism.
In this case, spiritual factors are considered as life-giving the strength of the entire sociocultural process. The participation of all people (historical beings) in the life of the spirit and their identity determine the general validity of the provisions of the sciences about the spirit. General concepts, ensuring the universality of the judgments and theories they use, are the result of experiences and understandings. Among the spiritual sciences psychology, dealing directly with psychic reality, becomes the basis and standard for the advanced study of man (community) and the foundation for all knowledge about him.
At the same time, Dilthey divides psychology into explanatory and descriptive (understanding).
Explanatory psychology. In the second half of the 19th century, the achievements of experimental psychology and physiology opened up the prospect of placing the study of spiritual processes on the solid ground of functional dependence psychic phenomena from physiological, that is, verifiable quantitative characteristics. Under the influence of objective methods and controlled experiments, psychology acquires the status of an independent scientific discipline. Due to the fact that this technique was borrowed from the more developed physiology of higher nervous activity at that time, the formation of the conceptual and explanatory apparatus of psychology took on a physiological coloring. It is based on physiologistschesical reductionism as the desire to reduce the psyche to brain processes: for each psychological function they tried to find a direct physiological basis in brain processes. This correlative relationship has the nature of correspondence when with a change in one set of processes there are changes in another and vice versa 1 .
Experiments in the field of the human psyche have convincingly revealed the dependence of mental activity on the processes that occur in the nervous system and human body generally. Laboratory experiments (G. Fichner) discovered the nature of mental reality as the interaction of physical stimuli and sensory reactions. In this case, the sensory organs perceive first of all themselves (I. Muller) - their immanent energy and state. Mental life - sensations - appeared as physiological processes that can be measured (stimulus - response)
1 In natural science, such connections are revealed by simple observation of phenomena external to the subject, presupposing its verification (verification). The latter consists of objective (experimental) confirmation of the data obtained using means that allow one to correct illusions of perception. In psychology, the line of physiological reductionism was developed in behaviorism(an alternative to Gestalt psychology), which determined the face of American psychology (the psychologization of sociology). His credo is expressed by the formula "stimulus-response" according to which the subject of psychology is behavior as an observable set of reactions to a set of fixed stimuli. This approach declared the actual psychological concepts (consciousness, emotions, will, etc.) to be devoid of any scientific content. Given a given stimulus (situation), we can tell in advance what the reaction (behavior) will be and vice versa. (See about this: E. Thorndike, John B. Watson. Behaviorism. - M.. 1998).
experimental methods. The psychologist is interested in the measured parameters of a person’s mental activity when solving problems determined by the algorithm of life, work, etc. Such cognition contributes to the adaptation of an organism with mental functions to the environment based on the physiological activity of the central nervous system. Given theoretical and applied the nature of experimental psychology determined its relevance, attractiveness and demand.
However, Dilthey considers explanatory psychology as an experimental natural science discipline based on determinism. It continues the traditions of the natural sciences: it seeks to reveal the causal relationship of mental phenomena (stimulus - response) and bring them under laws. Reason establishes, but experience verifies. Dilthey considers the idea of the connection between mental phenomena and nervous processes as an unjustified statement that spiritual (mental) phenomena are only side effects of physical processes (4, 7). In it he sees hidden materialism. The latter (like idealism) for him acts as a disintegrating factor for science.
Descriptive (understanding) psychology. Descriptive psychology is a discipline that studies the mental states experienced (and not inferred) by a person: it describes and analyzes the connections that are given to us initially and always in the form of life itself, dissolved in mental states - acts of consciousness and will (4, 17; 18) . Through experiencing (feeling) these states, we can achieve their full understanding and comprehension 1 .
Conceptually, according to Dilthey, the basis of the “sciences of the spirit” (history, society) are the connections of mental life as the original given (4, 8): dusewing life- some composite*! (4, 89) - there is a connection of feelings, will,
1 This approach was directed against the physiologicalization of the psyche: instead of searching for an explanation of the psyche “below” - to a physiological basis, an anti-reductionist movement will be made “from above” - from the position of integrity and independence of mental life.
On this basis, the concept of Gestalt psychology is formed in the German-language school of psychology, developing in the 20-30s the idea of understanding on the basis of the experimental and theoretical study of perception and thinking. Its representatives (W. Koeler, M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka, Chr. von Ehrenfedson, etc.) proceed from the position that in mental processes structured wholes play an important role - gestalts(structure, configuration), that is, the whole as a result of the interaction of parts (individual members of the group). As a result integrity appears as the relative independence of phenomena. The main thesis of Gestalt psychology is that mental phenomena are not constructed by synthesizing the properties of elements that previously existed independently. From the very beginning, the phenomenon represents a structured-organized integrity (the property of a chord in music) - a gestalt. With its help, Gestalt psychology explains the functioning of the psyche as movement along a certain sequence of structures: integrity should not only unite the object under study, but also set a pattern of its dismemberment, which, while preserving the whole, provides the possibility of its analysis (using the concepts of “field”, “grasp”, “ insight", "insight").
freedom, motives, ideas, dependence (4, 12). This mental (experienced) complex is primary and the difference in its members is a matter of the subsequent one. Soul connections in the form of life itself are given initially, and are not derived through hypotheses, conclusions and philosophical constructions. These connections constitute the subsurface layer of the process of cognition: their direct experience “underlies any comprehension of facts of a spiritual, historical and social order” (4, 17). Cognition of connections occurs through internal perception (introspection), experience within ourselves (and not sensory irritation) - intuitive understanding (4, 19). Mental thinking (analysis) dismembers and distinguishes the structure of mental life (feelings, commands and ideas), which is given to us in relationships as a living, historical connection (4, 67). “Every connection visible to our perception and established by our thinking follows from our own inner vitality” (4, 73). Purposefulness, which dominates mental life, is the inherent property of its connection components(4, 93). Experienced in feeling life relationships constitute the values of life (4, 94).
The process of understanding and comprehending mental life involves not only intellectual activity, but also the entire totality of our spiritual life. In it social life unfolds as the life of the spirit and is only projected into the extra-spiritual life of individuals - subjects of the historical process. Individuality is the image of the world itself, therefore the laws of the individual soul take the form of the laws of social life. Thus, the structure of society is determined by the mentalthe structure of the individual, and not the other way around. It follows from this that to the individualnal mental (spiritual) life, which continues in communities, acts as unit dimensions of social (historical) reality. All social processes flow from “human life”, therefore mental phenomena are not given “from the outside”, and we do not directly perceive them. They flow “from within” - we ourselves experience and understand the mental state (existential intuition). These phenomena are the basis of social life.
Turning to experience and understanding means a turn to internal self-deepening and subjective vision by a person social world: he is flow mental experiences. The mental life (instincts, desires, interests, emotions, will, etc.) of a person as a subject of history causes changes in the natural (economic) world through physical actions that are filled motives, meanings and goals^. Thus mental life appears as a mental phenomenon in its internal connections, which constitutes item spiritual sciences (historical). Subjectivity, unpredictability, and irrationality of human (mental) states determine the need for a different (non-traditional) methodology and technique that would allow us to obtain generally valid knowledge of historical life connections.
1 This position of Dilthey’s “understanding psychology” will become the leitmotif of Weber’s “understanding sociology”.
Dilthey develops the concept of descriptive (understanding) psychology, which was a kind of search for a “third way” between inductive-hypothetical (natural science) and deductive-abstract (metaphysics) methodologies. He focused on the “disenchantment” of the meaningful meanings of the “other” (person, society, culture). Because of this, “understanding” psychology acted as an ideographic (idealizing) science, establishing the meaning of the individual (concrete), special in historical reality 1 .
The study of human nature as a bearer of the psyche must begin with knowledge existential-phenomenological foundations that require immersion in them, feeling (absorbing) direct experience until the moment is reached when some “things” come to mind (intuitively). After this, additional work is required to refine the ideas to the level at which they can be tested experimentally way. However, direct experimental verification (in the natural scientific sense) of psychological phenomena is difficult to implement. Therefore, research in psychology cannot avoid subjectivelysti researcher. Therefore, we must stop the war with it: the unique possibilities of subjectivity must become a specific research tool in the form of making expert conclusions. The researcher submits his judgments (removal) for consideration by other researchers (experts) represented by qualified scientists 2,
Due to the fact that the mental structures of people are similar, on the basis of identification, the possibility of understanding the inner world of people through empathy, co-experience of individual and collective life connections opens up. Solving the problem general validity with the subjective nature of the experiences, it led to an appeal to issues of interaction (integration), linguistic communication (communication), historical and logical aspects of understanding that go beyond the limits of mental cognition.
To understand the author means to understand another (alien) consciousness and its world, in the acts of which historical events are dissolved. The analogy of the mental life of an individual (separate personality) with the historical process means that this process in a certain aspect will coincide with biography. Through repeated experience of the states of individuality and originality of the internal experience of the “other” (the historical event being studied), we can achieve their full understanding and comprehension (3, 22). At the same time, the uncertainty of boundaries contributes to the eternal relevance of book and written interpretation.
Thus, the shift in emphasis from explanation (the science of nature) to understanding (the science of spirit) contributed to the development and enrichment of methods of cognition of social life: textual criticism (content analysis), autobiography.
“It claimed an alternative role in relation to nomothetic science, looking for general laws that allow formalization and, with the help of generalizing methods, bring the individual under a general pattern.
5 This logic of obtaining universally valid - true meaning - will be developed in the teaching of the “ideal type” of M. Weber.
fii (biographical), testing (survey). As a result, generalizing experimental, statistical, historical and comparative methods are complemented by the potential for indirect knowledge of the general through research of the individual.
Psychologization of history
Accepting the laws of the individual soulform the patterns of social lifeneither.
V. Dilthey
Dilthey develops the idea of the connection between the concepts of “life” and “history”,
which focuses on the fact that the place of the universal Hegelian reason comes to the historical life relationship and the power of the irrational in it. The life aspirations, the motivations for the historical activity of people gifted with individuality and possessing passions, give concrete form to the historical process. Therefore, social life and its development are secondary and are derived from mental factors (non-economic). Due to the fact that the mental structures of people are similar, the opportunity opens up to cognize and reconstruct the spiritual world of the “other” (alien) by analogy. Thus, life has ceased to be the specific prerogative of exclusively philosophical consideration. There is a shift towards humanitarian(anti-positivist) attitude in the knowledge of the “social” and in the priority appeal to the “spiritual sciences” (historical) - human science (social science). Their specificity lies in the fact that these sciences do not require natural scientific procedures, since the constant interaction of experience and understanding can only be “deciphered” by humanitarian scientific methods (3, 13).
In historical science, the world is built on the basis of the completeness of the historian’s own experiences and understandings, which are objectified (objectified) in the semantic formations of culture: documents, works, recorded actions, life revelations, cultural monuments, etc. In them, the semantic coding of life occurs. At the same time, experiences constitute mental content of social life. It is fixed in the cultural-historical process, and understanding this content requires personal “getting used to” (“empathy”) of the researcher into the events of the past (someone else’s inner world), which makes them “alive” again, real (immediate).
The historian must not only reproduce the true picture of a historical event, but “experience” it anew, “interpret” and reproduce it as living: not only what is happening in the material conditions of people’s lives (production, everyday life, etc.), but also the motivations, life aspirations of people's historical activities. Therefore, cognition of the meaning - the subjective (psychological) side of historical events by the soul and intuition of the researcher - requires a different (in relation to natural science) study.
Historical knowledge (spiritual sciences) and natural scientific knowledge (natural sciences) are heterogeneous. In society there is no single and unchangeable
a series of things, that is, the natural historical course of events. Consequently, there are no universal laws of historical development. Metaphysical theories that establish such laws, although they have a certain value, are not, however, capable of resolving questions that relate to human affairs. Rational thinking does not care about a person’s feelings and emotions, about everything that is most important to him. It forcibly treats historical facts in favor of preconceived theoretical constructions (Hegel, Copt, Marx, etc.). History had no independent meaning for them: historical facts were used only as “raw material” for philosophical generalizations.
In particular, on the basis of metaphysical theories, schemes are created with the premise finalism: explanatory schemes that presuppose the implementation of final goals, genetically related to the Christian eschatology of the “end of history”, when “earthly paradise” will finally reign, and “good will will prevail among men.” These include the doctrines of “three stages” (Comte), formations (Marx), which have the character of philosophical postulates of traditional metaphysical philosophy, the verification of which almost no attention was paid. However living life went its own way and did not fit into the framework of abstract thinking and categories (schemes) proposed by these social prophets.
This resulted in the main theoretical task - to carry out a critical analysis of all “historical knowledge” (“historical reason”) and give a new interpretation of the historical method capable of creating a science of human history (the science of the spirit). In this regard, Dilthey acts as the “Kant of historical knowledge,” who radically contrasted the historical (humanitarian) sciences with natural science. A unified methodology capable of covering the entire history of the spirit and recreating the historical spiritual world has become psychology, directly concerned with psychic reality. It becomes the standard for advanced study of man (communities) and the foundation for all knowledge about him. This is the meaning of psychologizing history.
The starting point of the psychologization of history is the presentation of the cultural-historical process as a combination of conscious, emotional and volitional activities, that is, its content is psychology (and not logic) 1 . This fact connects psychological thinking with artistic forms of mastering historical reality. History as the scientific formation of an image is a kind of transition between experience and poetry 2.
1 Dilthey does not oppose logic as such. But the fact is that rational methods spiritual aspect historical reality is not available. Therefore, it is studied by a new type of “spiritual sciences”, in which logic is logical operations and general forms thinking play a secondary, additional role in relation to psychological thinking (internal perception).
2 As Dilthey notes, the same world mystery faces poetry and science (3, 35). The poet is the mirror of humanity, and his consciousness brings forth what humanity feels and does (Schopenhauer). The poet pours out his own soul in poetry, but it reflects the essential existence of humanity. Therefore, there is more genuine truth in poetry than in history.
Representatives of the philosophy of life believe that in historical reality there is only "individual law" deduced on the basis of an intuitive comprehension of the “vital feeling of individuals” (“the linkage of their destinies”). When studying a historical event, it is impossible to imagine the entire complex of its constituent parts. Historical knowledge is characterized by different awareness values perceived mental facts. It is value that determines the separation of the essential from the inessential for our life connections. The historian studies historical life through individuality, which “is the image of the world itself” (3, 112). He must feel (internal perception) the historical event and understand the thoughts, moods and motives of the participants in this event and thereby experience it in all its individuality and originality. This will achieve everything that science can give. Thus, the basis for experiencing, understanding and interpreting historical events is the personality and the processes occurring in its soul. However, the interpretation cannot be complete. Therefore, searching for “historical laws” (universal) is untenable.
In general, the cognitive activity of the new psychological approach was the desire to “decipher” a person’s involvement in the life world, emphasizing it subjective side - life aspirations, motives, meanings. Its representatives penetrated into the spiritual depths of their time and interpreted them as the basis of the life of civilization, social life, consisting of a stock of culture - ideas, knowledge, values. Psychologism becomes a determining factor in development and humanization social sciences the last third of the 19th century. His penetration into sociology led to the formation of the direction "sociological psychologism" the defining feature of which was the mixing of the subjects of sociology and psychology.
Researcher Robin Dunbar linked activity in the neocortex, the main part of the cortex cerebral hemispheres brain, with the level of social activity.
He looked at the size of social groups in different animals and the number of partners involved in grooming (an important part of courtship in animals, such as grooming in primates).
It turned out that the size of the neocortex is directly related to the size of the social group and the number of individuals that groom each other (constantly communicate in human terms).
When Dunbar began researching people, he found that social groups number about 150 people. That is, a person has approximately 150 people whom he can ask for help or provide something to them.
More close group is 12 people, but 150 social connections is a more significant number. This maximum quantity people we support social connections. If you have acquaintances above this number, some of your past connections go away, and you stop communicating with them.
To put it another way, it looks like this:
This is the number of people you wouldn't mind having a drink with at a bar if you happened to meet them there.
Writer Rick Lax tried to challenge Dunbar's theory, and wrote about his attempt to do so:
In trying to challenge Dunbar's theory, I actually confirmed it. Even if you decide to disprove Dunbar's number and try to expand your circle of acquaintances, you will be able to maintain interaction with a large number people, but this large number there are just 200 people or even less.
This experiment allowed Lax to look at closer connections:
After my experiment, I gained respect for:
1. British anthropology
2. To my real friends.
I realized that there are not many of them, but now I treat them much better and appreciate them more.
Dunbar's number is especially useful for marketers and people working in the field of social media and branding. If you know that each person can only interact with 150 friends and acquaintances, it will be easier to respond to rejection.
Instead of getting angry and upset that people don't want to communicate with you and support your brand, think about the fact that they only have 150 contacts and if they choose you, they will reject someone they know . On the other hand, if they make contact, you will appreciate more that they chose you.
But what about social media, where many have more than a thousand friends? On the other hand, how many of them do you have any communication with? Surely the number of such people is close to 150. And as soon as you make new contacts, the old ones are forgotten and simply “hang” among your friends.
Many people periodically “clean” their list and delete those with whom they will not communicate, leaving only close people, and this is not entirely correct. The point is that Not only strong connections are important, that is, your immediate environment. Morten Hansen's book Cooperation describes how important weak ties(in particular, connections made through social networks, for example, friends of friends, subscribers). Hansen writes that such connections are the key to new opportunities.
The study showed that for human development it is not so much the number of connections that is important, but their diversity: people who adhere to different points view, from different experiences and knowledge. And such a diverse contingent can easily be found on a social network.
Weak ties are useful because they take us into unfamiliar areas, while strong ties exist in areas we have already explored.
Hanlon's razor
Never attribute to malice what can be explained by stupidity.
In Hanlon's razor, instead of the word "stupidity" you can put "ignorance", that is, a lack of information before making a decision or taking any action. And this is how this razor works: when you think someone is treating you with malice or doing something “out of spite,” first dig deeper and find out if it is due to ignorance.
For example, if you received an e-mail from an employee in which he strongly opposes your idea, perhaps he simply did not understand the essence of it, and his indignation was not directed against you, but only against an idea that seemed stupid or dangerous to him.
In addition, it often happens that people try to help a person using their own methods, but he perceives this as evil machinations and harm. Humans are not naturally evil creatures, so every perceived harm may turn out to be a desire to help that is simply ridiculous and ignorant.
Herzberg's Motivation Factors
The latter theory can help you communicate at work with co-workers and colleagues, and maybe even friends and spouses. This theory was put forward in 1959 by Frederick Herzberg and its essence is that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are measured differently and are not two ends of the same line.
The theory suggests that job dissatisfaction depends on “hygiene factors” such as working conditions, size wages, relationship with superiors and colleagues. If they are not there, there is dissatisfaction.
But job satisfaction does not arise from the presence of the above factors, but from the next group of reasons, “motivation”: pleasure from the work process, recognition and opportunities for growth.
What we can take away from this is that if you work in a high-paying job with comfortable working conditions, you can still feel like crap if, for example, you have no responsibility and you never feel successful.
And vice versa - the fact that you receive recognition and understand that you are creating something valuable and worthwhile will not compensate for the fact that you are paid pennies for it, and you can’t imagine worse working conditions.
This theory is especially useful to those who are responsible for personnel in the company. Now you will understand why people, despite good conditions, they still quit their jobs.
For those who are themselves dissatisfied with their work, this theory will help to figure out what causes dissatisfaction and how to deal with it. And one more thing: if your friends, family or acquaintances complain about work, you will never tell them: “But they pay you so well there! You’re freaking out, stay.” And this could be very important for their future.
Or character, work characteristics, lifestyle.
In the event that it is important for you to understand another, what is equally means understanding yourself, developing and improving your ability to “see people through”, you will be interested in learning about the secrets of “understanding” people.
People who understand others well understand themselves first and foremost, trust their instincts and have a lot in common.
Here are some character traits, behavioral characteristics, and communication techniques of experts in this field, knowledge of which will be useful. And it is within the power of any person to develop these qualities in themselves.
But first, a little introspection that will complement the picture of our strengths and weaknesses V understanding of others people and yourself, Certainly. Answer the following ten questions in your mind as honestly as you can:
1. How do you feel about your past?
2. Do you listen carefully to what is being said to you?
3. Do you pay attention to detail or try to shape general idea about someone or something?
4. How do you express your feelings, openly or reservedly?
5. How do you behave in an unfamiliar situation?
6. Are you afraid of difficulties and how do you cope with them?
7. Do you know what can make you happy in everyday life?
8. What is your memory?
9. How often do you take right decisions At work?
10. How do you make decisions - do you trust advice or listen to yourself?
What answers say about your insight, the ability to understand oneself and others:
1. People understand others when they perceive their past as required experience. They usually use different ways and techniques to achieve your goal. Moreover, they look at failure like the inventor of the light bulb, Edison: “I found a thousand ways to make a light bulb.” And I didn’t make a mistake a thousand times, even if it was different each time. Ideally, all that is required is not to repeat mistakes. People who are able to understand another remember perfectly well how they felt when they had problems. serious problems. They react very sharply to troubles, so they do everything to ensure that they never happen again.
2. They give the most close attention everything that people say, how they say it and how they look. This makes it much easier for them to remember exactly what others say.
3. They constantly monitor a person's reactions - his movements, gestures and facial expressions - and therefore know how they act on others and how others act on them.
4. They are not afraid to openly express all their emotions - from anger and fear to love, because they always know how they feel in any given situation.
5. They are so susceptible to everything that happens around them that they easily avoid the threat of becoming a victim in situations that are potentially dangerous to their health and life.
6. They are confident. They know that they will not only survive, but also win, because they know how to surround themselves reliable people.
7. Giving great attention even minor details, they simultaneously see the big picture and are able to enjoy the small joys of life.
8. They have good memory which they develop by paying close attention to what is happening around them and studying the people with whom they deal.
9. In their business, they make good decisions more often than bad ones. If they take risks, they carefully weigh the pros and cons, because they know many nuances and possible approaches to solving the problems they face.
10. They trust their intuition and their personal experience and do not succumb to the influence of others. Thanks to their broad outlook, they rarely choose as friends and comrades people who can cause them nothing but grief and trouble.
By doing this, you will find that you have an immeasurably better understanding of what others really meant and what they really are. And the more actively you apply your knowledge in practice, the sooner you will learn to distinguish decent people from those who are able to deliver more trouble and problems.
Before starting any business or personal relationship, it is worth stopping, pausing for a minute or two, taking a closer look at the facial expression and gestures of the other person, listening to what and how he says, and most importantly, understanding how he likes us makes an impression. For example, you realize that you should not have anything to do with a person, because he is completely contraindicated for you, but you still go for it. In this case, you just need to remember that the relationship with people like this They will not only cause you anxiety, but will also undermine your health. Once you realize that because of someone your life could literally be in danger, it will become much easier for you to say “no” to such a person, because health and well-being, of course, come first. By making it a habit to stop, look around, and listen whenever you meet someone new, you will develop incredible insight into other people. And when you need to make a fundamental decision regarding a person, you will make the right and accurate choice.
To " see right through a person", it is necessary to decode correctly and in a timely manner all information that he conveys with all his behavior, and not just the meaning of the words he speaks. Deciphering another person's behavior is easy to do based on four sources of information:
Deciphering the speech code.
A person's voice gives only part of the clues to his inner world; Not lower value has both what words he uses and what he actually means. What do people really mean by what they say? How sincere are they? Do they give dubious compliments, are their pleasantries, in fact, disguised barbs? Are they spreading gossip about you? Do they have a habit of constantly talking only about themselves? What are their vocabulary and do they follow the rules of grammar? What are they really talking about if you listen to what is “between the lines”?
Your voice can say a lot about your condition. This is especially evident when you are talking on the phone. In an instant, you determine the mood of the person on the other end of the line. The voice code is determined by the tone of the voice. Much of this code is familiar to you, but you may not have given it much attention. These include the range of the speaker's voice (high or low voice), his distinctive features(the person mumbles, speaks more and more quietly, the voice is plaintive, harsh, serious, hoarse, hoarse, melodic, low, resonant, dull, lifeless, enthusiastic, excited, aggressive, sugary or monotonous), as well as the volume of the voice and the pace of speech, which primarily depend on the speech technique of a particular person.
Looking closely at the body language code.
The body language code is a kind of tracing paper of a person that shows how he walks, sits and stands. How a person holds his head is no less important when analyzing the body language code than what movements he makes with his arms and legs. Observe, for example, what space a person takes up when he sits, or what distance from you he usually tries to stay.
The face of every person expresses something, and it is by the face that we understand what is in his soul. The facial expression code shows how someone's face changes when they listen to others or speak themselves. At the same time, the expression of the eyes is no less important than the facial expressions of the mouth. How does a person listen to you: with an open mouth or with clenched teeth? Maybe he frowns, looks around, looks away? By carefully looking at the expression on your interlocutor's face, you can evaluate in a completely new way what he actually said. Every detail of a person’s facial expression can tell a lot of interesting things about him.
How does a person who is able to understand others and understand himself behave, applicable to the above four codes, i.e. someone with whom you want to deal, make friends, become close acquaintances, make a part of your life, and who, among other things, has something learn. Let me say right away that this description is average, it does not mean that you need to copy it and abandon your own individual characteristics. The best thing to do is to preserve your personality, but what you like and suits you can add to your collection of useful habits.
Speech code. Understanding, or as they are also called reliable, people willingly enter into conversation and speak politely and kindly. They tend to think before they speak, keep their word, and know what they are talking about and what they are doing. They do not skimp on compliments and say them from the heart. Understanding people are not inclined to talk about bad things and find the good side in any situation. With all this, they are sincere and honest, wherever possible.
Trustworthy people take responsibility for their actions and speak and act accordingly. They accept people as they are and do not try to judge anyone. Understanding people willingly share information with others and always make sure that the conversation is useful for all its participants. Their manner of communication speaks of modesty, simplicity and lack of self-importance. They have a good sense of humor, but do not make fun of others or try to say things that might humiliate another person. They speak to the essence of the conversation, directly and clearly, trying to avoid ambiguity. They are excellent listeners, helping the interlocutor to express himself with the best side. Understanding people value communication and sincerely show their affection to people.
Voice code. The manner of speech of understanding people allows them to express a variety of feelings. When they discuss something, their tone expresses the emotions appropriate to the occasion. If they are upset, happy, scared or worried, it will immediately show in their voice. The timbre and volume of their voices change depending on the topic being discussed. Reliable people pronounce their words clearly and clearly and have an expressive voice. You can hear cheerfulness and optimism in him, and in his manner of speech you can feel the strength that forces your interlocutors to listen carefully.
Body language code. Trustworthy people move freely and carry themselves in a way that allows people to see their willingness to communicate without feeling awkward. When talking, they often lean towards the interlocutor and are not afraid to touch him. They like to nod to encourage a person and show him their interest. Trustworthy people always adopt a comfortable posture, but also maintain good posture, holding their heads high, shoulders back, and not hunched over. With hand movements they know how to show their interest or emphasize a particular idea. When gesturing, they show their palms to the interlocutor and keep their fingers straight, demonstrating that they have nothing to hide. When sitting, understanding people spread their legs freely or place them one on top of the other, which also indicates their openness. The feet are pressed firmly to the ground and look towards the interlocutor.
Facial expression code . When talking, understanding people are happy to look a person straight in the eyes and not look around. Their interlocutor feels that for them in the whole world there is no one more important than him. Usually reliable people have a calm and open expression faces indicating their readiness to communicate. They have lively facial expressions, a slight smile on their face, and the lower part remains relaxed when they talk and listen. If they smile, it is only sincerely, because when they smile, the tips of their lips rise, and wrinkles appear around their eyes, and they infect those around them with their fun. The facial expression matches what they are about to express in words. If they are upset, you will immediately feel it not only in their tone, but also in their facial expression. When reliable people like someone, their pupils dilate and they start smiling all the time.
(Based on materials from the book Lillian Glass "I Read Your Mind")
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