Activity concept structure types. Main components of activity (structure of activity)

15. TYPES OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY Pedagogical activity, according to its main indicators, is understood as the consciously chosen and carried out activity of adults, elders, citizens, various officials and specialists (this can be parents, teachers,

Methodology “Structure of motivation for work activity” The method was developed by K. Zamfir. The structure of motivation for work activity includes three components: internal motivation (IM), external positive motivation (EPM) and external negative motivation (ENM).

§ 2. Structure volitional regulation activity Activity is carried out by a system of actions. Action - structural unit activities. There are perceptual, mental, mnemonic and practical actions. In each action it is possible to identify an indicative

29. Types of activity There are three genetically replacing each other and coexisting throughout life path type of activity: play, study and work. They differ in final results (product of activity), in organization, in features

Topic Human activity, its main forms

Activity- a person’s way of relating to the outside world, which consists of transforming and subordinating it to a person’s goals.

Activity- this is a unique way of interacting with the world around a person, during which he consciously changes the world and himself, creating something that did not exist in nature.

Human activity has a certain similarity with the activity of an animal, but differs in its creative and transformative attitude to the surrounding world.

Main components of activity (structure of activity)

Subject of activity - is the one who carries out the activity (person, team, society)

Object of activity - this is what the activity is aimed at (object, process, phenomenon, internal state of a person). Lightning object. Installation of lightning rod. Lightning rod is a device installed on buildings and structures and serves to protect against lightning strikes. Object – atmosphere, earth.

Motive - a set of external and internal conditions causing the activity of the subject and determining the direction of activity. This is what stimulates us to activity. What need is driving the activity? Motives can include: needs; social attitudes; beliefs; interests; attractions and emotions; ideals.

Purpose of activity - this is a conscious image of the result towards which a person’s action is aimed. What is the desired outcome of the activity?

Methods, means. How and with what help does activity take place?

Process.

Result (product). What happened after all the actions?

An activity consists of a chain of actions. Action is a process aimed at achieving a set goal.

Social action includes two aspects: the subjective motivation of the individual; orientation towards others, which Weber calls “expectation” and without which action cannot be considered social.

Its main subject is the individual. Types of actions(Classification of the German sociologist, philosopher, historian M. Weber (1864-1920) depending on the motives of action):

Affective and traditional actions are not social in the strict sense, since we are not dealing here with awareness of the meaning of affective and traditional behavior.

People's activities unfold in various spheres of social life; their direction, content, and means are infinitely diverse.

Activities, in which each person inevitably becomes involved in the process of his individual development: play, communication, learning (cognition), work.

A game- this is a special type of activity”, the purpose of which is not the production of any material product, but the process itself - entertainment, relaxation.

Character traits games: takes place in a conditional situation, which, as a rule, changes quickly; in its process, so-called substitute objects are used; is aimed at satisfying the interests of its participants; promotes the development of personality, enriches it, equips it with the necessary skills (through the game, social roles and norms are mastered - compliance with the rules of the game, the formation personal qualities– development of patience (following a goal for a long time) when playing hide and seek, concentration, honesty).

Communication is an activity in which ideas and emotions are exchanged. It is often expanded to include the exchange of material items. This broader exchange is communication [material or spiritual (information)].

Exists several classifications of communication.

By means of communication used:

Direct- with the help of natural organs - hands, head, vocal cords etc.

Indirect- using specially adapted or invented means - newspaper, CD, footprint on the ground, etc.

Direct- personal contacts and direct perception of each other

Indirect- through intermediaries who may be other people

By subjects of communication:

Between real subjects

Between a real subject and an illusory partner, to whom qualities of a subject of communication that are unusual for him are attributed (this could be pets, toys, etc.)

Between a real subject and an imaginary partner, it manifests itself in internal dialogue (“inner voice”), in dialogue with the image of another person

Between imaginary partners - artistic images of works

Communication functions

IN modern science There are several approaches to the issue of the connection between activity and communication.

Communication is an element of any activity, and activity is necessary condition communication, you can put an equal sign between them;

Communication is one of the types of human activity along with play, work, etc.;

Communication and activity are different categories, two sides of human social existence: work activity can occur without communication, and communication can exist without activity.

Teaching- this is a type of activity whose purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person.

Teaching can be organized (carried out in educational institutions) and unorganized (carried out in other types of activities as their side additional result).

Teaching can take on a character self-education

On the question of what is work, There are several points of view:

- work- this is any conscious human activity. Where there is human interaction with the outside world, we can talk about work;

- work- one of the types of activity, but far from the only one.

Work- This is a type of activity that is aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Characteristic features of work: expediency; focus on achieving programmed expected results; presence of skill, skills, knowledge; practical usefulness; obtaining a result; personality development transformation external environment human habitation.

Work provides a means of livelihood, allows you to feel needed by society (significant), allows you to develop abilities, maintains intellectual health, and brings the joy of communicating with other people.

In each type of activity, specific goals and objectives are set, and a special arsenal of means, operations and methods is used to achieve the goals. At the same time, none of the activities exists outside of interaction with each other, which determines systemic nature all spheres of public life.

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I. Concept and structure of human activity.

1) Definition of activity.

2) The difference between activity and behavior and activity. Specificity of human activity. Basic attributes of activity.

3) Structure of activity. The concepts of action, operation and means of carrying out activities.

4) Motivation for activity.

5) Internal and external components of activity, mutual transitions between them.

II. Types and development of human activity.

1) Types of human activity.

2) Labor as an activity.

3) Teaching and its features.

4) Communication as an activity.

5) Game as a type of activity.

6) Features and functions of games for people of different ages. Specifics of children's play. Playful forms of behavior in adults.

7) Human activity and development.

8) General and special patterns of formation various types activities.

9) Structural transformations activity in the process of its development.

III.Activity and mental processes.

1) Mental processes as internal components of activity. The dependence of the development of human mental processes on his activities. Identity of the structure of external (practical) and internal (mental) activity.

2) Participation of activity in the processes of sensation and perception.

3) Activity and attention. Active, activity-based nature of ideas.

4) Participation of activities in the formation and development of human memory.

5) Activity and intellectual processes. The dependence of speech on the nature of human activity.

IV.Abilities, skills and habits.

1) Skills and abilities like structural elements activities.

2) Education of skills and abilities. Motor skills and abilities.

3) Cognitive skills and skills: perceptual, mnemonic, intellectual, orienting.

4) Practical skills and skills.

5) The concept of habit and its place in the structure of activity.

I. CONCEPT AND STRUCTURE OF HUMAN ACTIVITY

Plant activity is practically limited by the exchange of substances with the environment. Animal activity includes elementary forms of exploration of this environment and learning. Human activity is very diverse. In addition to all types and forms characteristic of animals, it contains special form called activity.

Activity can be defined as specific type human activity aimed at understanding and creatively transforming the surrounding world, including oneself and the conditions of one’s existence. In activity, a person creates objects of material and spiritual culture, transforms his abilities, preserves and improves nature, builds society, creates something that would not exist in nature without his activity. The creative nature of human activity is manifested in the fact that thanks to it it goes beyond the limits of its natural limitations, i.e. exceeds its own genotypically determined capabilities. Due to the productive creative nature Through his activities, man has created sign systems, instruments of influence on himself and nature. Using these tools, he built modern society, cities, machines, with their help he produced new consumer goods, material and spiritual culture, and ultimately transformed himself. The historical progress that has taken place over the past few tens of thousands of years owes its origin to activity, not to improvement. biological nature of people.

Modern man lives surrounded by such objects, none of which are pure creations of nature.

All such objects, especially at work and in everyday life, have been touched to one degree or another by the hands and mind of a person, so that they can be considered a material embodiment human abilities. They seem to objectify the achievements of the human mind. Mastering ways of handling such objects and including them in activities acts as a person’s own development. All this human activity differs from animal activity, which do not produce anything like that: no clothes, no furniture, no cars, no sign systems, no tools, no means of transportation, and much more. To satisfy their needs, animals use only what nature has provided them.

In other words, human activity manifests itself and continues in creations; it is productive, and not just consumerist in nature.

Having generated and continued to improve consumer goods, a person, in addition to his abilities, develops his needs. Finding themselves connected with objects of material and spiritual culture, people’s needs acquire a cultural character.

Activity a person is fundamentally different from activity animals and in other respects. If the activity of animals is caused by natural needs, then human activity is mainly generated and supported by artificial needs that arise due to the appropriation of the achievements of the cultural and historical development of people of the present and previous generations. These are the needs for knowledge (scientific and artistic), creativity, moral self-improvement and others.

Forms and methods of human organization activities also different from activity animals. Almost all of them are associated with complex motor skills that animals do not have - skills and abilities acquired as a result of conscious, purposeful organized training. Already with early childhood the child is specially taught how to use household items (fork, spoon, clothes, chair, table, soap, Toothbrush, pencil, paper, etc.), with various tools that transform the movements of the limbs given by nature. They begin to obey the logic of the objects with which a person deals. Objective activity arises, which differs from the natural activity of animals.

The system of movements performed by animals is determined by the anatomical and physiological structure of the body. Animals treat objects of human material culture (book, pencil, spoon, etc.) as if they were ordinary natural objects, without taking into account their cultural purpose and the way they are used by people. In humans, the movements of the arms and legs themselves are transformed, obeying the rules of the culture of using the corresponding objects, i.e. become artificial, more perfect and socially conditioned.

Animals only consume what is given to them by nature. Man, on the contrary, creates more than he consumes. If his activity, like the activity of animals, was mainly of a consumer nature, then several dozen generations of people would not have been able to achieve such progress in a historically relatively short period of time, to create a grandiose world of spiritual and material culture. All this is due to the active nature of human activity.

So, the main differences between human activity and animal activity boil down to the following:

1. Human activity is productive, creative, creative in nature. Animal activity has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new compared to what is given by nature.

2. Human activity is connected with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as objects to satisfy needs, or as means own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.

3. Human activity transforms himself, his abilities, needs, and living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in external conditions life.

4. Human activity in its various forms and means of implementation is a product of history. The activity of animals appears as a result of their biological evolution.

5. People’s objective activities are not given to them from birth. It is “given” in the cultural purpose and way of using surrounding objects. Such activities need to be formed and developed in training and education. The same applies to the internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures that control outside practical activities. The activity of animals is initially given, genotypically determined and unfolds as the natural anatomical and physiological maturation of the organism occurs.

Activity differs not only from activity, but also from behavior. Behavior is not always purposeful, does not imply the creation of a specific product, and is often passive in nature. Activities are always purposeful, active, aimed at creating some product. Behavior is spontaneous (“wherever it leads”), activity is organized; behavior is chaotic, activity is systematic.

Human activity has the following main characteristics: motive, purpose, subject, structure And facilities . Motive activity is called what motivates it, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motive is usually a specific need that is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity.

The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual. Organic motives are aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the body (in humans - at creating conditions in the most to a greater extent contributing to this). Such motives are associated with growth, self-preservation and development of the organism. This is the production of food, housing, clothing, etc. Functional motives are satisfied through various kinds cultural forms activities such as games and sports. Material motives encourage a person to engage in activities aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs. Social motives give rise to various types of activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect from those around them. Spiritual motives underlie those activities that are associated with human self-improvement. The type of activity is usually determined by its dominant motive (dominant because all human activity is polymotivated, that is, motivated by several different motives).

As goals activity is its product. It may represent a real physical object, man-made, certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activity, a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art).

The purpose of an activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and purpose of an activity may coincide with each other. Different activities that have the same goal ( final result), can be stimulated and supported by various motives. On the contrary, at the heart of a number of activities with different ultimate goals the same motives may lie. For example, reading a book for a person can act as a means of material satisfaction (to demonstrate knowledge and get a well-paid job for this), social (to show off your knowledge among significant people, to achieve their favor), spiritual (to expand your horizons, to rise to higher levels). high level moral development) needs. Such different types activities such as purchasing fashionable, prestigious things, reading literature, taking care of appearance, developing the ability to behave, can ultimately pursue the same goal: to achieve someone’s favor at all costs.

Subject activity is called what it directly deals with. So, for example, the subject cognitive activity is all kinds of information, the subject of educational activity is knowledge, abilities and skills, the subject of labor activity is the created material product.

Every activity has a certain structure. It usually identifies actions and operations as the main components of activity. Action refers to a part of an activity that has a completely independent, human-conscious goal. For example, an action included in the structure of cognitive activity can be called receiving a book, reading it; actions included in labor activity can be considered familiarization with the task, searching for the necessary tools and materials, developing a project, technology for manufacturing the item, etc.; Actions associated with creativity are the formulation of a plan and its phased implementation in the product of creative work.

Operation name the method of carrying out an action. How much in various ways performing an action, so many different operations can be distinguished. The nature of the operation depends on the conditions for performing the action, on the skills and abilities a person has, on the available tools and means of carrying out the action. Different people, for example, remember information and write differently. This means that they carry out the action of writing text or memorizing material using various operations. A person's preferred operations characterize him individual style activities.

As funds For a person to carry out activities, they are the tools that he uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which the activity becomes more productive and of higher quality.

Motivation for activity does not remain unchanged during its development. So, for example, at labor or creative activity Over time, other motives may appear, and the previous ones may fade into the background. Sometimes an action that was previously included in the activity can stand out from it and acquire an independent status, turning into an activity with its own motive. In e in that case We celebrate the birth of a new activity.

With age, as a person develops, the motivation for his activities changes. If a person changes as a person, then the motives of his activities are transformed. Progressive development human being is characterized by the movement of motives towards their increasing spiritualization (from organic to material, from material to social, from social to creative, from creative to moral).

Every human activity has external And internal Components. Internal include anatomical and physiological structures and processes involved in the control of activities by the central nervous system, and psychological processes and states included in the regulation of activity. External components include various movements associated practical implementation activities.

The ratio of internal and external components of activity is not constant. As activities develop and transform, a systematic transition of external components into internal ones takes place. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If any difficulties arise in the activity, when it is restored, associated with violations of the internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: the reduced, automated components of the activity unfold, appear externally, the internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.

U modern man There are many different types of activities, the number of which approximately corresponds to the number of existing needs (taking into account the multimotivation of the activity). In order to present and describe all these activities, it is necessary to list the most important for this person needs. But such a task in practice seems difficult, since the number of different needs is large and they vary individually.

It is easier to determine the basic parameters according to which the system can be described human needs, and then, using them, give characteristics of the types of activities inherent in to a specific person. There are three such parameters: strength, quantity and quality of needs.

Under by force of need This refers to the meaning of the corresponding need for a person, its relevance, frequency of occurrence and motivating potential. A stronger need is more significant, occurs more often, dominates other needs and forces a person to behave in such a way that this particular need is satisfied first.

Quantity- this is the number of various needs that a person has and from time to time become relevant for him. There are people who have a relatively small number of needs, and they quite successfully cope with their systematic satisfaction, enjoying life. But there are those who have many different, sometimes contradictory, incompatible needs. The actualization of such needs requires the simultaneous inclusion of a person in various types of activities, and conflicts often arise between multidirectional needs and there is a shortage of time necessary to satisfy them. Such people usually complain about a lack of time and experience dissatisfaction with life, in particular because they do not have time to do everything on time.

Under the uniqueness of the need This refers to items and objects with the help of which this or that need can be sufficiently fully satisfied for a given person, as well as the preferred way of satisfying this and other needs. For example, the cognitive need of one person can be satisfied as a result of systematically watching only entertainment programs on television. For others, to fully satisfy a similar need, reading newspapers, books, listening to the radio and watching television is not enough. The third person, in addition to the above, needs systematic communication with people who are carriers of useful information educational nature, as well as inclusion in interesting independent creative research work.

In accordance with the described parameters characterizing the system of human needs, it is possible to individually imagine and describe a set of activities characteristic of an individual and for groups of people. In this case, for each of these parameters and the variety of their combinations, it is possible to create and propose classifications of types of human activity.

But there is another way: to generalize and highlight the main types of activities characteristic of all people. They will correspond to the general needs that can be found in almost all people without exception, or rather, to the types of social human activity in which every person is inevitably involved in the process of his individual development. This - communication, play, learning And work . They should be considered as main activities of people.

Communication- the first type of activity that arises in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these types of activities are developmental in nature, i.e. When a child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development occurs.

Communication is considered as a type of activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relationships, providing mutual assistance and the educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct And mediated, verbal And non-verbal. At direct communication people are in direct contact with each other, know and see each other, directly exchange verbal or non-verbal information, without using any auxiliary means. With mediated communication there are no direct contacts between people. They exchange information either through other people, or through means of recording and reproducing information (books, newspapers, radio, television, telephone, fax, etc.).

A game- this is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games of adults and children). Games are often of an entertainment nature and serve the purpose of relaxation. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic release of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is unable to weaken in any other way.

There are several types of games: individual and group, subject and plot, role-playing and games with rules. Individual games are a type of activity when one person is engaged in the game, group games involve several individuals. Object games are associated with inclusion in play activity person of any objects. Story games unfold according to a certain scenario, reproducing it in basic detail. Role-playing games allow human behavior limited to a certain role that he takes on in the game. Finally, games with rules are governed by a certain system of rules of conduct for their participants. Often in life we ​​meet mixed types games: subject-role-playing, plot-role-playing, plot-based games with rules, etc. The relationships that develop between people in the game, as a rule, are artificial character in the sense of the word that they are not taken seriously by others and are not grounds for drawing conclusions about a person. Gaming behavior and gaming relationships have little effect on real relationships between people, at least among adults.

However, games have great importance in people's lives. For children, games have primarily a developmental value, and for adults they serve as a means of communication and relaxation. Some forms of gaming activity take on the character of rituals, educational and training sessions, and sports hobbies.

Teaching acts as a type of activity, the purpose of which is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized and carried out in special educational institutions. It can be unorganized and occur along the way, in other activities as a by-product, additional result. In adults, learning can take on the character of self-education. The peculiarities of educational activity are that it directly serves as a means psychological development individual.

A special place in the system of human activity is occupied by work. It was thanks to labor that man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered prospects for further, practically unlimited development. Labor is primarily associated with the creation and improvement of tools. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity.

When they talk about the development of human activity, they mean the following aspects of progressive transformation activities:

1. Phylogenetic development of the human activity system.

2. The inclusion of a person in various types of activities in the process of his individual development (ontogenesis).

3. Changes happening inside individual species activities as they develop.

4. Differentiation of activities, in the process of which others are born from some activities due to the isolation and transformation of individual actions into independent species activities.

The phylogenetic transformation of the system of human activities essentially coincides with the history of the socio-economic development of mankind. Integration and differentiation public structures accompanied by the emergence of new types of activities among people. The same thing happened as the economy grew, cooperation and division of labor developed. People of new generations, joining the life of their contemporary society, assimilated and developed those types of activities that are characteristic of this society.

This process of integrating a growing individual into the existing system of activities is called socialization, and its gradual implementation involves the gradual involvement of the child in communication, play, learning and work - those four main types of activities that were briefly described above. Moreover, each of these types of activities is first learned in its most elementary form, and then becomes more complex and improved. The communication of an adult with the people around him is just as little similar to the communication of a baby or junior school student, like the labor activity of adults for a child's game.

In the process of development of activity, it occurs internal transformations. Firstly, the activity is enriched with new subject content. Its object and, accordingly, the means of satisfying the needs associated with it become new objects of material and spiritual culture. Secondly, activities have new means of implementation that speed up their progress and improve results. For example, learning a new language expands the possibilities for recording and reproducing information; acquaintance with higher mathematics improves quantitative ability. Thirdly, in the process of development of activity, automation of individual operations and other components of activity occurs, they turn into skills and abilities. Finally, fourthly, as a result of the development of activity, new types of activity can be separated from it, isolated and further independently developed. This mechanism for the development of activity was described by A.N. Leontiev and was called the shift of motive to goal.

The action of this mechanism seems to be as follows. A certain fragment of activity - an action - may initially have a goal recognized by the individual, which in turn acts as a means of achieving another goal that serves to satisfy a need. A given action and its corresponding goal are attractive to the individual insofar as they serve the process of satisfying a need, and only for this reason. In the future, the goal of this action may acquire independent value and become a need or motive. In this case, they say that in the course of the development of activity, a shift of motive to goal occurred and a new activity was born.

III. ACTIVITY AND MENTAL PROCESSES

Mental processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking, speech- act as essential components any human activity. In order to satisfy his needs, communicate, play, study and work, a person must perceive the world, pay attention to certain moments or components of activity, imagine what he needs to do, remember, think, and make judgments. Consequently, without the participation of mental processes, human activity is impossible; they act as its integral internal moments.

But it turns out that mental processes do not just participate in activity, they develop in it and themselves represent special types of activity.

Perception in the process of practical activity acquires its most important human qualities. In activity, its main types are formed: perception of depth, direction and speed of movement, time and space. The child’s practical manipulation with three-dimensional, nearby and distant objects reveals to him the fact that objects and space have certain dimensions: width, height, depth. As a result, a person learns to perceive and evaluate forms. Tracking movements of the hand and eye, accompanied by synergistic, coordinated contractions of certain muscle groups, contribute to the formation of the perception of movement and its direction. Changes in the speed of moving objects are automatically reproduced in the acceleration and deceleration of contractions of certain muscle groups, and this trains the senses to perceive speed.

Imagination is also related to activity. Firstly, a person is not able to imagine or imagine something that has never appeared in experience, was not an element, subject, condition or moment of any activity. The texture of imagination is a reflection, although not a literal one, of the experience of practical activity.

This applies even more to memory, and to its two main processes simultaneously: memorization and reproduction. Memorization is carried out in activity and itself represents a special kind of mnemonic activity, which contains actions and operations aimed at preparing the material for better memorization. This is structuring, comprehending, associating the material with known facts, inclusion of various objects and movements in the memorization process, etc.

Recall also involves performing certain actions aimed at promptly and accurately recalling the material imprinted in memory. It is known that consciously reproducing an activity during which some material was memorized makes it easier to recall.

Thinking in a number of its forms is identical to practical activity (the so-called “manual” or practical thinking). In more developed forms- figurative and logical - the activity moment appears in it in the form of internal, mental actions and operations. Speech is also a special kind of activity, so the phrase “speech activity” is often used to characterize it. Since the internal mental processes in humans display the same structure as external actions, there is every reason to talk not only about external, but also internal action.

It has been experimentally proven that internal, i.e. mental processes called higher mental functions, by origin and structure are activities. Theories have been developed and proven in practice that claim that mental processes can be formed through organized special rules external activities. External activity, as a result of its special transformations aimed at reducing and automating individual links, their transformation into skills, gradually turns into internal, actually mental (interiorization). Such internalized mental processes are voluntary and mediated by speech. cognitive processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking.

On the other hand, none of the mentioned mental processes proceeds as purely internal and necessarily includes some external, usually motor links. Visual perception, for example, is inextricably linked with eye movements, touch - with hand movements, attention - with muscle contractions, determining his concentration, switchability and absent-mindedness. When a person solves problems, it almost always works articulatory apparatus; speech activity without movements of the larynx and facial muscles is impossible. Consequently, any activity is a combination of internal and external, mental and behavioral actions and operations.

IV. ABILITIES, SKILLS AND HABITS

Automated, consciously, semiconsciously and unconsciously controlled components of activity are called respectively skills, abilities and habits.

Skills- these are elements of activity that allow you to do something with high quality, for example, accurately and correctly perform any action, operation, series of actions or operations. Skills usually include automatically performed parts, called skills, but in general represent consciously controlled parts of the activity, at least in the main intermediate points and the final goal.

Skills- these are fully automated, instinct-like components of skills, implemented at the level of unconscious control. If by action we understand a part of an activity that has a clearly defined conscious goal, then a skill can also be called an automated component of an action.

When automating actions and operations and turning them into skills, a number of transformations occur in the structure of activity. Firstly, automated actions and operations merge into a single, holistically occurring act called skill (for example, a complex system of human movements, writing text, performing sports exercise performing a surgical operation, making a thin part of an object, giving a lecture, etc.). At the same time, unnecessary, unnecessary movements disappear, and the number of erroneous ones drops sharply.

Secondly, control over an action or operation, when automated, shifts from the process to the final result, and external, sensory control is replaced by internal, proprioceptive control. The speed of action and operation increases sharply, reaching a certain optimum or maximum. All of this usually happens as a result of exercise and training.

The development and improvement of activity can be understood, therefore, as the transition of components of individual skills, actions and operations to the level of skills. By the way, operations can also serve as a skill. Then they are part of a more complex skill. Thanks to the automation of its individual components, human activity, freed from regulation of relatively elementary acts, can be directed to solving more complex problems.

The physiological basis for the automation of components of activity, initially presented in its structure in the form of actions and operations and then turning into skills, is, as N.A. Bernstein showed, the transition of control of activity or its individual components to the subconscious level of regulation and bringing them to automatism.

Since skills are included in the structure of actions and various activities in large quantities, they usually interact with each other, forming complex systems skills. The nature of their interaction can be different: from coordination to opposition, from complete fusion to mutually negative inhibitory influence - interference. Coordination of skills occurs when: a) the system of movements included in one skill corresponds to the system of movements included in another skill; b) when the implementation of one skill creates favorable conditions to perform the second (one of the skills serves as a means of better mastering the other); c) when the end of one skill is the actual beginning of another, and vice versa. Interference occurs when one of the following contradictions appears in the interaction of skills: a) the system of movements included in one skill contradicts and does not agree with the system of movements that make up the structure of another skill; b) when, when moving from one skill to another, you actually have to relearn, break the structure of the old skill; c) when the system of movements included in one skill is partially contained in another skill that has already been brought to automatism (in this case, when performing a new skill, movements characteristic of a previously learned skill automatically arise, which leads to a distortion of the movements necessary for the newly acquired skill ); d) when the beginnings and ends of sequentially performed skills do not fit together. With full automation of skills, the phenomenon of interference is reduced to a minimum or disappears altogether.

Important for understanding the process of skill formation is their transfer, i.e. distribution and use of skills formed as a result of performing some actions and activities to others. In order for such a transfer to take place normally, it is necessary that the skill becomes generalized, universal, consistent with other skills, actions and activities, brought to automatism.

Abilities, unlike skills, are formed as a result of the coordination of skills, their integration into systems using actions that are under conscious control. Through the regulation of such actions, optimal management of skills is carried out. It is to ensure error-free and flexible execution of the action, i.e. obtaining as a result a reliable outcome of the action. The action itself in the structure of the skill is controlled by its goal. For example, students junior classes When learning to write, they perform a number of actions related to writing individual elements of letters. At the same time, the skills of holding a pencil in the hand and performing basic hand movements are performed, as a rule, automatically. The main thing in managing skills is to ensure that each action is error-free and has sufficient flexibility. It means practical exception low quality of work, variability and the ability to adapt the skill system to changing operating conditions from time to time while maintaining positive work results. For example, the ability to do something with one's own hands means that a person with such a skill will always work well and is able to maintain high quality work in any conditions. The ability to teach means that a teacher is able to teach any normal student what he himself knows and can do.

One of the main qualities related to skills is that a person is able to change the structure of skills - skills, operations and actions included in the skills, the sequence of their implementation, while keeping the final result unchanged. A skilled person, for example, can replace one material with another when making a product, make it himself or use the tools at hand, other improvised means, in a word, he will find a way out in almost any situation.

Abilities, unlike skills, are always based on active intellectual activity and necessarily include thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skills from skills. Activation of intellectual activity in skills occurs precisely at those moments when the conditions of activity change, non-standard situations arise that require prompt adoption reasonable solutions. Management of skills at the level of the Central nervous system is carried out by higher anatomical and physiological authorities than management of skills, i.e. at the level of the cerebral cortex.

Skills and abilities are divided into several types: motor, cognitive, theoretical and practical. Motor ones include a variety of movements, complex and simple, that make up the external, motor aspects of activity. There are special types of activities, such as sports, that are entirely based on motor skills and abilities. Cognitive skills include abilities associated with searching, perceiving, remembering and processing information. They correlate with basic mental processes and involve the formation of knowledge. Theoretical skills are associated with abstract intelligence. They are expressed in a person’s ability to analyze, generalize material, build hypotheses, theories, translate information from one sign system to another. Such skills and abilities are most manifested in creative work associated with obtaining an ideal product of thought.

Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills. Thanks to them, skills are automated, skills and activities are improved in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of maintaining them. Without constant, systematic exercise, skills and abilities are usually lost and lose their qualities.

Another element of the activity is habit. It differs from ability and skills in that it represents a so-called unproductive element of activity. If skills and abilities are related to solving a problem, involve obtaining a product and are quite flexible (in the structure of complex skills), then habits are an inflexible (often unreasonable) part of an activity that a person performs mechanically and does not have a conscious goal or clearly expressed productive completion. Unlike a simple skill, a habit can to a certain extent consciously controlled. But it differs from skill in that it is not always reasonable and useful (bad habits). Habits as elements of activity are the least flexible parts of it.

List of used literature

1. Belous V.V. Temperament and activity. Tutorial. - Pyatigorsk, 1990.

2. Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. – M., 1982.

3. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology: In 2 vols. – Vol. I. – M., 1989.

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Lecture, abstract. - The structure of activity briefly - concept and types. Classification, essence and features.

Activity is a specific type of human activity aimed at creative transformation, improvement of reality and oneself. Activity is a form of realization of the subject’s relationship to the world of objects; we can distinguish different types of such relationships, realized in different forms of activity: practical, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. Practical activity is aimed primarily at transforming the world in accordance with the goals set by man. Cognitive activity serves the purpose of understanding the objective laws of the existence of the world, without which it is impossible to carry out practical tasks. Aesthetic activity associated with the perception and creation of works of art involves the translation (transmission) of meanings, which are determined by the value orientations of a particular society and individual. All these are types of human activity.

Within each type of activity, individual types of activity can be distinguished based on the differences in their subjects - motives: communication, play, learning and work.

Communication is the first type of activity that arises in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these types of activities are developmental in nature, i.e. When a child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development occurs.

Communication is considered as a type of activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relationships, providing mutual assistance and the educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other.

A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games are often of an entertainment nature and serve the purpose of relaxation. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic release of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is unable to weaken in any other way.

Games can be: individual (one person is engaged in a game), group (with several people), subject-based (associated with the inclusion of some objects in a person’s gaming activity), plot (unfold according to a script, in the main details), role-playing (in the game a person leads himself according to the role he takes on) and games with rules (regulated by a system of rules). Games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games have a developmental value, while for adults they have a relaxing value.

Teaching is a type of activity whose purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Learning can be organized (in special educational institutions) and unorganized (in other types of activities as a by-product, additional result). Educational activities serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.

Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. Thanks to labor, man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he opened up prospects for further, almost unlimited development. Labor is primarily associated with the creation and improvement of tools. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity. These are the main characteristics of activities.

At school A.N. Leontiev distinguishes two forms of subject activity (according to the nature of its openness to observation): external and internal. By external activity we usually mean various forms of objective-practical activity (for example, driving a nail with a hammer, working on a machine, manipulating toys in small children, etc.), where the subject interacts with an object clearly presented for external observation. Internal activity is the activity of a subject with images of objects hidden from direct observation (for example, the theoretical activity of a scientist in solving some problem). mathematical problem, the actor’s work on the role, taking place in the form of internal thoughts and experiences, etc.). The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. As activities develop and transform, a systematic transition from external to internal components is carried out. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If any difficulties arise in activity, when it is restored, associated with violations of internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: reduced, automated components of activity unfold, appear externally, internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.

Activity differs from behavior (behavior is not always purposeful, does not involve the creation of a specific product, and is often passive in nature) and has the following main characteristics: motive, goal, subject, structure, means. We talked about motives and goals in paragraph 1.1., so let’s immediately move on to the third characteristic - the subject of activity. The object of activity is everything with which it directly deals. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is information, educational activity is knowledge, skills and abilities, and labor activity is the created material product.

The activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several “layers” or levels. These are special activities (or special types of activities); then the action level; the next is the level of operations; finally, the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. Special types of activities: gaming, educational, work activities.

Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is one of the main “formative” activities. This concept, like a drop of water, reflects the basic starting points or principles of the theory of activity, new in comparison with previous concepts.

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject (“opening” the circle of consciousness).

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from a person’s consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).

3.Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).

4.Human actions are objective; they realize social - production and cultural - goals (the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).

The goal sets the action, the action ensures the realization of the goal. By characterizing the goal, you can also characterize the action. There are large goals that are divided into smaller, private goals, which, in turn, can be divided into even more private goals, etc. Accordingly, any sufficiently large action is a sequence of actions of a lower order with transitions to different “floors” hierarchical system of actions. This can be demonstrated using any example.

Let's say a person wants to call another city. To carry out this action (I order), he needs to perform a number of private actions (II order): go to the telephone booth, find a suitable machine, take a turn, purchase telephone tokens, etc. Once in the booth, he must perform the following action in this row: connect to the subscriber. But to do this, he will have to perform a number of even smaller actions (III order): put in a coin, press a button, wait for the beep, dial a certain number, etc.

Now we turn to operations, which form the next, underlying level in relation to actions.

An operation is a way of performing an action. Multiply two double digit numbers you can do it in your head and in writing, solving the example “in a column”. These will be two different ways of performing the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations. As you can see, operations characterize the technical side of performing actions, and what is called “technique,” ​​dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of operations. The nature of the operations depends on the conditions of the action being performed. If the action meets the goal itself, then the operation meets the conditions under which this goal is given. In this case, “conditions” mean both external circumstances and the possibilities, or internal means, of the acting subject himself.

The most accurate psychological sign that distinguishes actions and operations - awareness/unconsciousness - can, in principle, be used, however, not always. It stops working just in border zone,near the boundary that separates the action and operation layer. The further from this boundary, the more reliable the self-observation data: the subject usually has no doubt about the representation (or non-representation) in the consciousness of very large or very small acts. But in the border zone the situational dynamics of the activity process become significant. And here the very attempt to determine the awareness of any act can lead to its awareness, that is, disrupt the natural structure of activity.

The only way that is now seen is the use of objective indicators, i.e. behavioral and physiological signs, the active level of the current process.

Let's move on to the last, lowest level in the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions. Psychophysiological functions in activity theory are understood as physiological support for mental processes. These include a number of abilities of our body, such as the ability to sense, to form and record traces of past influences, motor ability, etc. Accordingly, they speak of sensory, mnemonic, and motor functions. This level also includes innate mechanisms fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, and those that mature during the first months of life. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of activity processes. Without relying on them, it would be impossible not only to carry out actions and operations, but also to set the tasks themselves.

Let's return to the characteristics of activity, and the last characteristic is the means of carrying out the activity. These are the tools that a person uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which it becomes more productive and of higher quality.

And at the end of the paragraph, we emphasize the main differences between human activity and animal activity:

1.Human activity is productive, creative, creative in nature. Animal activity has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new compared to what is given by nature.

2. Human activity is connected with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as objects to satisfy needs, or as means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.

3. Human activity transforms himself, his abilities, needs, and living conditions. The activity of animals changes practically nothing either in themselves or in the external conditions of life.

4. Human activity in its various forms and means of implementation is a product of history. The activity of animals appears as a result of their biological evolution.

5. People’s objective activities are not given to them from birth. It is “given” in the cultural purpose and way of using surrounding objects. Such activities need to be formed and developed in training and education. The same applies to internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures that control the external side of practical activity. The activity of animals is initially given, genotypically determined and unfolds as the natural anatomical and physiological maturation of the organism occurs.

The essence of motivation. Motive and incentive. Basic theories of motivation.

Motivation is a process of motivating oneself or others to act and achieve certain goals. Incentive, stimulation also includes the material side, it is a kind of promise of reward, a reward that also serves as an incentive to activity and achieve goals. Motivation is an internal process. Stimulation - external. Motive implies the internal urge or desire of an individual to behave in a certain way to satisfy needs. And the incentive also captures the material aspect. Theories of motivation: Content-based: A. Maslow’s model of motivation based on the hierarchy of needs: primary, social, respect and self-expression, self-realization through their consistent implementation;

D. McClelland's model of motivation using the needs of power, success and recognition in the group, involvement in it; F. Herzberg's model of motivation using hygienic factors (working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.) in combination with the “enrichment” of the work process itself: a sense of success, promotion, recognition from others, responsibility, growth of opportunities; Processual: a model of motivation based on V. Vram's expectancy theory: a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal when he is confident that his needs will be met. Motivation is a function of the expectation factor according to the scheme: “labor costs -> results -” reward”; model of motivation based on equity theory: people compare personal effort expended with reward, comparing it with the reward of others for similar work. If labor is undervalued, effort decreases.

Leadership is a purposeful influence on the people being led and their communities, which leads to their conscious and active behavior and activities, in accordance with the intentions of the leader. Leadership is the process of psychological influence of one person on others during their joint life activities, which is carried out on the basis of perception, imitation, suggestion, and understanding of each other. Leadership is based on the principles of free communication, mutual understanding and voluntary submission. A leader is characterized by: the ability to perceive the general needs and problems of the team and take on a certain share in solving these problems; the ability to be an organizer of joint activities: he formulates a task that worries the majority of team members, plans joint work, taking into account the interests and capabilities of each team member; sensitivity and insight, trust in people, he is an exponent of the collective positions of its members. The main differences between management and leadership: management provides for the organization of all group activities, and leadership characterizes the psychological relationships that arise in the group “vertically,” that is, from the point of view of relations of dominance and subordination; leadership is a natural and necessary element of the process of the emergence of a formal organization, while leadership arises spontaneously as a consequence of the interaction of people; leadership acts as a process of legal organization and management of joint activities of members of organizations, and leadership is a process of internal socio-psychological organization and management of communication and activity; the leader is a mediator social control and power, and the leader is the subject of group norms and expectations that are spontaneously formed in personal relationships. A manager-leader does not command, does not call upon or “put pressure” on employees, but leads people along with them to solve problems common to the given team.

General and special functions of management activities.

Control functions- this is a direction or types of management activity, based on division and cooperation in management, and characterized by a separate set of tasks and performed by special techniques and methods. Any management function includes collecting information, transforming it, making decisions, giving it form and communicating it to performers. General control functions:- carried out in every organization and at every level of management; - inherent in the management of any organization; - share content management activities on types of work based on the sequence of their implementation over time; - are relatively independent and at the same time closely interact. Such functions, in particular, management include: planning, organizing, motivating and controlling. Specific (specific) functions- represent the result of the division of managerial labor. Such functions include various types of activities that differ in purpose and method of implementation. Specific functions do not affect the entire organization, but its specific aspects or parts. Each specific management function in an organization is complex in content and includes general functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. Special functions - are subfunctions of a specific function (for example, a special function of main production management is operational scheduling of main production).

The main categories of PU are activity and labor. Activity is an activity that realizes human needs, its characteristics are the external side (tools used, technologies, social roles, languages, norms and values), the internal side (expressed in the conditioning of the psyche by past experience, needs, motives and goals). Human activity has a complex genetic, functional and structural nature. It has its origins, “causes” and a more or less definite structural and functional organization. Its composition is multicomponent. Its implementation involves mental processes, states and personality traits of varying levels of complexity. Depending on the goals, this activity can last for years or even a lifetime. However, no matter how complex it may be, no matter how long it lasts, it can be described using universal units that reflect not the content, but rather the structural-level approach to its description. Units of activity, which represent its smaller fragments, but at the same time preserving the specificity of its psychological content, are those elements that are enshrined in the concepts of action and operation. Purposeful activity associated with the achievement of specific goals while carrying out broader activities is usually called actions in psychology. An operation is that specific set and sequence of movements that is determined by the specific conditions of interaction with objects in the process of carrying out actions (for example, the physical properties of the object, location, orientation in space, accessibility, etc.). Simply put, an operation is a way of performing an action. Operations are formed through imitation (copying) and by automating actions. Unlike actions, operations are little conscious.

The principle of unity of psyche and activity;

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is the fundamental principle of the activity approach in psychology. Activity is not a set of reflexive and impulsive reactions to external stimuli, since it is regulated by consciousness and reveals it. At the same time, consciousness is considered as a reality that is not given to the subject directly, in his introspection: it can be known only through a system of subjective relations, incl. through the activity of the subject, during which consciousness is formed and developed. The psyche, consciousness “lives” in activity, which constitutes their “substance”; the image is “accumulated movement”, i.e. compressed actions that were at first completely developed and “external”, i.e. consciousness does not simply “manifest and form” in activity as a separate reality - it is “built-in” into activity and is inseparable from it. The principle of a two-stage psychological study of activity. According to him, the analysis of activity should include two successive stages - analysis of its content and analysis of its psychological mechanisms. The first stage is associated with the characterization of the objective content of the activity, the second - with the analysis of the subjective, actually psychological content.

Basic management functions: planning, motivation, etc.

Currently, a process approach to management is widespread, which considers management as a process consisting of a number of specific sequential steps. Most people plan their activities for the day (month, year, etc.), then organize the resources that will be needed to carry out their plan. Those. management must be viewed as a cyclical process ^ Main types of managementPlanning - the process of preparing for the future decisions about what should be done, how, when, what and how many resources should be used. The planning function answers three questions: · where the organization is currently located; Where does she want to go? · how the organization is going to do this. ^ Organization. Stages: 1. structural organization(includes the structure of authority and the structure of communications; 2. organization of the production process (includes the organization of personnel work, work in time, work in space). Motivation - maximum satisfaction of the needs of the organization's employees in exchange for their effective work. Stages: 1. determining the needs of employees; 2. providing the opportunity for the employee to satisfy these needs through good work. Control - the process of ensuring that an organization actually achieves its goals. Stages: 1. setting standards; 2. measuring what has actually been achieved and comparing what has been achieved with intended standards; 3. identification of sources of discrepancies and actions necessary to correct plans.

Basic psychological requirements to a spectacular manager.

Many existing approaches to defining a normative model of an effective leader can be combined into 3 main groups:

1. Situational;

2. Personal;

3. Situational.

1. Functional approach. The main point for developing requirements for

An effective manager is to define his functions. In this case, the main structure for identifying functions is the structure of the manager’s activities.

In most cases, the functional characteristics of managers' activities are associated with the understanding and formulation of the organization's mission, goal setting, resource management, and control of processes in the external and internal environment of the organization.

We can name 12 functions that reflect the structure and specifics of the professional activity of a manager:

1. Knowledge - knowledge of a person, group, organization, its environment, the current management situation;

2. Forecast - determination of the main directions and dynamics of development of controlled variables;

3. Design - determining the mission, goals and objectives of the organization, programming and planning activities;

4. Communication and information - formation, structuring, preservation of communication networks, collection, transformation and direction into communication networks necessary for information management;

5. Motivation - rational influence on the totality of external and internal conditions that cause activity and determine the direction of activity of the subject and object of management;

6. Guidelines - taking responsibility for proposed decisions and their consequences based on regulations or agreements within organizations;

7. Organizations - implementation of management goals and objectives;

8. Training - transfer of necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to personnel;

9. Development - expedient change in psychological variables of the individual and group;

10. Assessments - the formation and application of norms and performance standards;

11. Control - a reflection of the compliance of the current state of organizations with management goals;

12. Corrections - making necessary changes to management goals and programs.

When carrying out professional selection procedures for managers, the readiness of applicants to effectively perform exactly those functions that are characteristic of the proposed position is assessed from the perspective of a functional approach.

2. Personal approach. It is based on the assumption that effective management activity is associated with the manager’s possession of several personality traits.

The profile of an effective manager, according to which a successful manager is characterized by the following features:

Search for opportunities and initiative; perseverance and perseverance;

Focus on efficiency and quality; involvement in work contacts;

Determination;

Awareness;

Ability to persuade and establish connections; independence and self-confidence.

3. Situational (behavioural) approach. Successful leadership depends on:

1. expectations and needs of managed persons;

2. group structure and situation specifics;

3. The cultural environment in which the group is included;

4. history of the organization in which leadership activities are carried out;

5. age and experience of the manager, his length of service;

6. Psychological climate in the group;

7. personal characteristics of subordinates.

The situational approach allows us to identify a number of personality traits of a manager, which indicate the manager’s readiness for productive activity in a wide range of situations. These include, in particular, the ability to flexibly change leadership style, resistance to uncertainty, and the absence of rigid stereotypes.

Thus, we can conclude that the overriding task of professional selection of managers is to establish the correspondence of the applicant’s personal characteristics with the characteristics of the organization, the structure and functions of the activity, and the current and predicted state of the professional environment.

The essence of management activity, two main plans for its characteristics.

Activity is defined as a form of the subject’s active relationship to reality, aimed at achieving consciously set goals and associated with the creation of socially significant values ​​and the development of social experience. The subject of the psychological study of activity is the psychological components that encourage, direct and regulate the subject’s labor activity and realize it in performing actions, as well as the personality traits through which this activity is realized. The main psychological properties of activity are activity, awareness, purposefulness, objectivity and consistency of its structure. Activity is always based on some motive (or several motives). Activity involves two main levels of characterization - external (objectively active) and internal (psychological). External characteristics of activity are carried out through the concepts of subject and object of labor, object, means and conditions of activity. The subject of labor is a set of things, processes, phenomena with which the subject, in the process of work, must mentally or practically operate. Means of labor are a set of tools that can enhance a person’s ability to recognize the characteristics of the subject of labor and influence it. Working conditions are a system of social, psychological and sanitary-hygienic characteristics of activity. The internal characteristics of activity presuppose a description of the processes and mechanisms of its mental regulation, its structure and content, and the operational means of its implementation.

The mechanism for executing decisions and its role in management activities. Model of decision making as a circular process, its stages.

Stages of the decision-making process: 1) Problem identification - the primary identification in a particular contradictory situation of a problem that requires resolution. A discrepancy has emerged between the actual and desired state of the organization. 2) Analysis, diagnosis of the problem based on the collection of factual material related to the problem that has arisen. Having discovered a problem, it is necessary to correctly qualify it, which is the second task of the process of developing a management solution. Diagnostics is designed to establish the nature of the problem, its connection with other problems, the degree of its danger, collection and analysis of facts. 3) Determination of the essence of the problem, its main content. At this stage, the results of the analysis are used to develop solution options. There should be many such options so that by comparing them it is possible to choose the best, most reasonable one. 4) Selecting the optimal solution option and communicating its content to the performers. Such a choice involves considering all options for the proposed solution and excluding subjective aspects in its content. The optimal option will be the one that best takes into account the essence of the problems that have arisen, is acceptable in terms of the amount of expenses required for its implementation and is the most reliable in terms of the possibility of its implementation. 5) Practical implementation under the control of the manager through the use of a feedback mechanism. The implementation of the decision includes all the main phases of the management cycle - planning, organization, motivation and control.

Sole and agreed decisions, conditions for their adoption. The need to make a decision arises when the usual, stereotypical reaction to the information received is impossible. The manager can make decisions either individually or in agreement with the work collective. Individual decisions are made by the manager mainly with minimal communication space - for example, decisions made in emergency conditions

, or decisions whose significance is not great. But there are also decisions that are better to be made in concert, taking into account the opinion of the team, or taking into account the opinion of the companies with which the enterprise cooperates, for example, on changing the delivery time of products.

Feedback is a prompt reaction to what is heard, read or seen; This is information (in verbal and non-verbal form) that is sent back to the sender, indicating the degree of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with it. Feedback allows the sender not only to find out the result of the communication act, but also to adjust the next message to achieve greater effect. If the result of the message transmission is achieved, it is said that positive feedback is in effect; otherwise negative feedback applies. Establishing feedback in an organization is a rather difficult task. This is especially true for vertical, power communications under control through coercion, when the recipient of information is afraid of possible sanctions and deliberately distorts the message coming through feedback channels.

Methods psychological research: general scientific and special; non-experimental and experimental.

Non-experimental methods: observation; survey; conversation; archival method" or the study of the products of an activity (The object of research when using the method of studying the products of an activity can be a wide variety of creative products of the subjects (poems, drawings, various crafts, diary entries, school essays, objects as a result of a certain type of labor activities). laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices. This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions). General scientific methods reflect the scientific apparatus of research that determines the effectiveness of any type. Specific are methods that are born of the specifics of management systems and reflect the peculiarities of management activities.