Degrees of normativity (imperative and dispositive norms). Norms according to dictionaries

And accentological norms. Lexical and phraseological norms

Plan

1. Concept language norm, its signs.

2. Standard options.

3. Degrees of normativity linguistic units.

4. Types of norms.

5. Norms oral speech.

5.1. Orthoepic norms.

5.2. Accentological norms.

6. Norms of oral and written speech.

6.1. Lexical norms.

6.2. Phraseological norms.

Speech culture, as mentioned earlier, is a multifaceted concept. It is based on the idea of ​​a “speech ideal” that exists in the human mind, a model in accordance with which correct, competent speech should be constructed.

Norm is the dominant concept of speech culture. In the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language D.N. Ushakova meaning of the word norm is defined as: “legalized establishment, usual mandatory order, state.” Thus, the norm reflects, first of all, customs and traditions, streamlines communication and is the result of the socio-historical selection of one option from several possible ones.

Language norms– these are the rules of use linguistic means at a certain period of development literary language(rules of pronunciation, word usage, use morphological forms different parts of speech, syntactic structures, etc.). This is a historically established uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements, recorded in grammars and standard dictionaries.

Language norms are characterized by a number of features:

1) relative stability;

2) common use;

3) universally binding;

4) correspondence to use, tradition and possibilities language system.

Norms reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by language practice.

The sources of norms are speech educated people, works of writers, as well as the most authoritative media.

Functions of the norm:

1) provides the opportunity correct understanding speaking given language each other;

2) inhibits the penetration of dialectal, colloquial, colloquial, slang elements into the literary language;

3) develops linguistic taste.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. They change over time, reflecting changes in the use of language. The sources of changes in norms are:

Colloquial speech (cf., for example, colloquial options like Ringing- along with lit. callsIt; cottage cheese- along with lit. cottage cheese; [de]kan along with lit [d'e]kan);

Colloquial speech (for example, in some dictionaries they are recorded as acceptable colloquial stress options agreement, phenomenon, which until recently were colloquial, non-normative variants);

Dialects (for example, in the Russian literary language there are a number of words that are dialectal in origin: spider, snowstorm, taiga, life);

Professional jargons (cf. variants of stress actively penetrating into modern everyday speech whooping cough, syringes, adopted in the speech of health workers).

Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which exist in a language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by native speakers. Language options- these are two or more ways of pronunciation, stress, formation of grammatical forms, etc. The emergence of variants is explained by the development of language: some linguistic phenomena become obsolete, fall out of use, others appear.

In this case, the options may be equal – normative, acceptable in literary speech (bakery And bulo [sh]aya; barge And barge; Mordvin And Mordvin ov ).

More often, only one of the options is recognized as normative; others are assessed as unacceptable, incorrect, violating literary norm (drivers and wrong. driverA; catholOg and wrong. catalog).

Unequal options. As a rule, variants of the norm specialize in one way or another. Very often the options are stylistic specialization: neutral – high; literary - colloquial ( stylistic options ). Wed. stylistically neutral pronunciation of the reduced vowel in words like s[a]net, p[a]et, m[a]dern and the pronunciation of the sound [o] in the same words, characteristic of a high, specifically bookish style: s[o]no, p[o]et, m[o]dern; neutral (soft) pronunciation of sounds [g], [k], [x] in words like jump up, jump up, jump up and the bookish, firm pronunciation of these sounds characteristic of the Old Moscow noma: flutter, flutter, jump up. Wed. also lit. contract, locksmith And and decomposition contract, locksmith I.

Often options are specialized in terms of their degree of modernity(chronological options ). For example: modern creamy and outdated plum[sh]ny.

In addition, the options may have differences in meaning ( semantic options ): moves(move, move) and drives(set in motion, encourage, force to act).

Based on the relationship between the norm and the variant, three degrees of normativity of linguistic units are distinguished.

Standard I degree. A strict, rigid norm that does not allow options. In such cases, the options in the dictionaries are accompanied by prohibitive notes: choice s – wrong. choice A; shi[n’e]l – wrong. shi[ne]l; motionSolicitation – wrong. petition; pampered – not rec. spoiled. In relation to linguistic facts that are outside the literary norm, it is more correct to speak not about variants, but about speech errors.

Standard II degree. The norm is neutral, allowing equal options. For example: loop And loop; pool And ba[sse]yn; stack And stack. In dictionaries, similar options are connected by the conjunction And.

Standard III degree. A flexible norm that allows the use of colloquial, outdated forms. Variants of the norm in such cases are accompanied by marks add.(acceptable), add. outdated(acceptable obsolete). For example: Augustovsky – add. Augustovsky; budo[chn]ik and additional mouth budo[sh]ik.

Variants of norms in the modern Russian literary language are represented very widely. In order to choose the right option, you need to refer to special dictionaries: spelling dictionaries, stress dictionaries, difficulty dictionaries, explanatory dictionaries, etc.

Language norms are mandatory for both oral and written speech. The typology of norms covers all levels of the language system: pronunciation, stress, word formation, morphology, syntax, spelling, and punctuation are subject to norms.

In accordance with the main levels of the language system and areas of use of language means, they are distinguished following types normal

Types of norms

Norms of oral speech	Standards of writing	Norms of oral and written speech
- accentological(norms for stress setting); - orthoepic(pronunciation standards)	- spelling(spelling norms); - punctuation(punctuation standards)	- lexical(norms of word usage); - phraseological(norms for the use of phraseological units); - word-formative(norms for word formation); - morphological(norms for the formation of word forms various parts speech); - syntactic(norms for constructing syntactic constructions)

Oral speech is spoken speech. It uses a system phonetic means expressions, which include: speech sounds, word stress, phrasal stress, intonation.

Specific to oral speech are pronunciation norms (orthoepic) and stress norms (accentological).

The norms of oral speech are reflected in special dictionaries (see, for example: Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms / edited by R.I. Avanesov. - M., 2001; Ageenko F.L., Zarva M.V. Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers. - M., 2000).

5.1. Orthoepic norms- these are the norms of literary pronunciation.

Orthoepia (from Greek. orthos – straight, correct and epic – speech) is a set of rules of oral speech that ensure the unity of its sound design in accordance with the norms historically established in the literary language.

The following groups of orthoepic norms are distinguished:

Pronunciation of vowel sounds: forest - in l[i]su; horn – r[a]ga;

Pronunciation of consonants: teeth – tooth[n], o[t]take – o[d]give;

Pronunciation of individual consonant combinations: in [zh’zh’]i, [sh’sh’]astye; kone[sh]o;

Pronunciation of consonants in separate grammatical forms(in adjective forms: elastic[gy] – elastic[g’y]; V verb forms Oh: took [sa] – took [s’a], I’m staying [s] – I’m staying [s’];

Pronunciation of words foreign language origin: pyu[re], [t’e]terror, b[o]a.

Let us dwell on individual, difficult cases of pronunciation, when the speaker needs to choose the correct option from a number of existing ones.

The Russian literary language is characterized by the pronunciation of [g] plosive. The pronunciation of the [γ] fricative is dialectal and non-normative. However, in a number of words the norm requires the pronunciation of the sound [γ], which, when deafened, turns into [x]: [ γ ]Lord, Bo[γ]a – Bo[x].

In Russian literary pronunciation there used to be a fairly significant range of everyday words in which instead of letter combinations CHN was pronounced ShN. Now, under the influence of spelling, there are quite a few such words left. Yes, pronunciation ShN preserved as obligatory in words kone[sh]o, naro[sh]o and in patronymics: Ilin[sh]a, Savvi[sh]na, Nikiti[sh]a(cf. the spelling of these words: Ilyinichna, Savvichna, Nikitichna).

A number of words allow variations in pronunciation CHN And ShN: decent And orderly, brown And bun[sh]aya, milk[chn]itsa And milk [sh]itsa. IN in separate words ShN pronunciation is perceived as outdated: lavo[sh]ik, grain[sh]evy, apple[sh]ny.

In scientific and technical terminology, as well as in words of a bookish nature, it is never pronounced ShN. Wed: flowing, heart (attack), milky (path), celibate.

Consonant group Thu in words what to nothing pronounced like PC: [pcs]o, [pcs]oby, not [pcs]o. In other cases - like Thu: not [that] about, according to [reading] and, according to [reading] a, [that] u, [reading].

For pronunciation foreign words The following trends are characteristic of the modern Russian literary language.

Foreign words are subject to the phonetic patterns in force in the language, so the majority of foreign words in pronunciation do not differ from Russian ones. However, some words retain their pronunciation features. This concerns

1) pronunciation of unstressed ABOUT;

2) pronunciation of the consonant before E.

1. In some groups of borrowed words that have limited use, they are (unstablely) preserved unstressed sound ABOUT. These include:

Foreign proper names: Voltaire, Zola, Jaurès, Chopin;

A small part of special terms that hardly penetrate into colloquial speech: bolero, nocturne, sonnet, modern, rococo.

Pronunciation ABOUT in the pre-stressed position, which is typical in these words for a bookish, high style; in neutral speech a sound is pronounced A: V[a]lter, n[a]cturne.

The absence of reduction in post-stressed position is characteristic of words cocoa, radio, credo.

2. The Russian language system tends to soften the consonant before E. In insufficiently mastered borrowed words, the preservation of the hard consonant is observed in accordance with the norm of the series European languages. This deviation from typical Russian pronunciation is much more widespread than the pronunciation of unstressed ABOUT.

Pronunciation of a hard consonant before E observed:

In expressions that are often reproduced using other alphabets: d e-facto, d e-ju r e, c r edo;

IN proper names: Flo[be]r, S[te]rn, Lafon[te]n, Sho[pe]n;

In special terms: [de]mping, [se]psis, ko[de]in, [de]cadence, ge[ne]sis, [re]le, ek[ze]ma;

In some frequency words, which have come into widespread use: pyu[re], [te]mp, e[ne]rgy.

Most often, consonants retain firmness in borrowed words D, T; then - WITH, Z, N, R; occasionally - B, M, IN; sounds are always softened G, TO And L.

Some words of foreign origin in modern literary language are characterized by variable pronunciation hard and soft consonants before E [d'e]kan - [de]kan, [s'e]ssia - [ses]siya, [t'e]terror.

In a number of words, the firm pronunciation of the consonant before E is perceived as cutesy, pretentious: academy, plywood, museum.

5.2. Accentology- a branch of the science of language that studies the features and functions of stress.

Stress norms regulate the choice of options for the placement and movement of a stressed syllable among unstressed ones.

In Russian, a stressed vowel in a syllable is distinguished by its duration, intensity and tone movement. Russian accent is free, or varied, those. not assigned to any specific syllable in a word (cf. stress in French, assigned to the last syllable, in Polish - to the penultimate). In addition, the stress in a number of words may be mobile– changing its place in various grammatical forms (for example, accepted - accepted, rights - rights).

The accentological norm in the modern Russian literary language is characterized by variability. Highlight various types accent options:

Semantic variants (variation of stress in them performs a semantic distinguishing function): Clubs - clubs, cotton - cotton, coal - coal, submerged(for transport) – immersed(into the water; into solving the problem);

Stylistic options (determined by the use of words in different functional styles of speech): silk(common use) – silk(poetic) compass(common use) – compass(prof.);

Chronological (differ by active or passive use in modern speech): thinking(modern) – thinking(obsolete), angle(modern) – cancerUrs(obsolete).

The accent in Russian is individual characteristic each word, which causes significant difficulties in determining the place of stress in a number of words. Difficulties also arise due to the fact that in many words the stress moves when the grammatical form changes. In difficult cases, when placing emphasis, you should refer to dictionaries. Taking into account certain patterns will also help to correctly place stress in words and word forms.

Among nouns a significant group of words with fixed stress stands out: dish(cf. plural part named after P.: dishes), bulletin (bulletin, bulletin), keychain (keychain, keychain), tablecloth, area, hospital, font, scarf, syringe, bow, cake, shoes, manger).

At the same time, there are a number of words in which, when the grammatical form changes, the stress moves from the stem to the ending or from the ending to the stem. For example: bandage (bandages), priest (prince), front (fronts), penny (pennies), coat of arms (coat of arms), shred (shreds), hit (hits), wave (waves) etc.

When placing emphasis on adjectives the following pattern applies: if in short form feminine the emphasis falls on the ending, then in the masculine, neuter and in the form plural the shock will be the base: rights - rights, rights, rights; and in the form comparative degree– suffix: light - brighter, But beautiful - more beautiful.

Verbs in the past tense they often retain the same stress as in indefinite form: to speak - she spoke, to know - she knew, to put - she laid. In a number of verbs, the emphasis moves in feminine forms to the ending: take - tookA, take - tookA, take off - took offA, start - startedA, call - called.

When conjugating verbs in the present tense, the stress can be mobile: walk, walk - walk and motionless: I call - you call, it rings; Turn it on - turn it on, turn it on.

Errors in stress placement can be caused by a number of reasons.

1. Absence of a letter in the printed text Yo. Hence the erroneous emphasis in words like newborn, prisoner, excited, beets(movement of stress and, as a result, pronunciation instead of a vowel sound ABOUT sound E), as well as in words guardianship, scam, bigamist, being, in which instead E pronounced ABOUT.

2. Ignorance of the stress inherent in the language from which the word is borrowed: blinds,(French words in which the stress falls on the last syllable), genesis(from Greek genesis -"origin, emergence").

3. Ignorance of the grammatical properties of the word. For example, noun toast– masculine, therefore in the plural form it has an emphasis on last syllable toast(cf. tables, sheets).

4. Incorrect part-speech assignment of the word. So, if you compare the words busy and busy, developed And developed, then it turns out that the first of them are adjectives with a stressed ending, and the second are participles that are pronounced with an accent on the stem.

Norms of oral and written speech are norms characteristic of both forms of literary language. These norms regulate the use in speech of units of different language levels: lexical, phraseological, morphological, syntactic.

6.1. Lexical norms represent the rules for the use of words in a language and their lexical compatibility, which is determined by the meaning of the word, its stylistic relevance and emotional and expressive coloring.

The use of words in speech is governed by the following rules.

1. Words must be used in accordance with their meaning.

2. It is necessary to observe the lexical (semantic) compatibility of words.

3.When using polysemantic words sentences must be constructed in such a way that it is clear exactly what meaning is realized by the word in a given context. For example, the word knee has 8 meanings in literary language: 1) a joint connecting the femur and tibia; 2) part of the leg from this joint to the pelvis; 3) a separate joint, link, segment in composition of something., which is a connection of such segments; 4) a bend of something, running in a broken line, from one turn to another; 5) in singing, a piece of music - a passage, a separate thing that stands out. place, part; 6) in dance - a separate technique, a figure, distinguished by its effectiveness; 7) unexpected, unusual act; 8) branching of the clan, generation in the pedigree.

4. Words of foreign origin must be used justifiably; clogging speech with foreign words is unacceptable.

Failure to comply with lexical norms leads to errors. Let's name the most typical of these errors.

1. Ignorance of the meaning of words and the rules of their semantic compatibility. Wed: It was very experienced thorough engineer (thorough - Means "thorough" and cannot be combined with the names of persons).

2. Mixing of paronyms. For example: Leonov is the first rogue space(instead of pioneer). Paronyms(from Greek . para– near, nearby + onyma- Name) – words that are similar in sound, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in their meaning. Differences in the meaning of paronyms lie in private additional semantic shades that serve to clarify thoughts. For example: humane – human; economical - economical - economical.

Humane – attentive, responsive, humane. Human boss. Human – relating to a person, to humanity; characteristic of a person. Human society. Human aspirations.

Economical – one who spends something thriftily, who observes economy. Thrifty housewife. Economical – enabling smth. save, profitable in economically, in operation. Economical loading method. Economic – related to economics. Economic law.

3. Don't correct use one of the synonyms: The amount of work is significant increased (should be said increased).

4. The use of pleonasms (from the Greek. pleonasmos– excess) – expressions containing unambiguous and therefore unnecessary words: Workers again resumed work(again - extra word); most maximum (most- a superfluous word).

5. Tautology (from Greek. tautologia from tauto– same thing + logos– word) – repetition of words with the same root: united together, the following features should be attributed, the narrator told.

6. Speech insufficiency - the absence in the statement of components necessary for its accurate understanding. For example: The medicine is made on the basis of ancient manuscripts. Wed. corrected version: The medicine is made based on recipes contained in ancient manuscripts.

7. Unjustified use of foreign words in speech. For example: Abundance accessories burdens the plot of the story, distracts attention from the main thing.

In order to comply with lexical norms, it is necessary to refer to explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of homonyms, synonyms, paronyms, as well as dictionaries foreign words Russian language.

6.2. Phraseological norms – norms for the use of set expressions ( from small to large; to kick the bucket; red as a lobster; salt of the earth; no year week).

The use of phraseological units in speech must comply with the following rules.

1. A phraseological unit must be reproduced in the form in which it is fixed in the language: it is impossible to expand or shorten the composition of the phraseological unit, replace some lexical components in the phraseological unit with others, change the grammatical forms of the components, change the order of the components. Thus, it is erroneous to use phraseological units turn the bank(instead of make a roll); play meaning(instead of play a role or matter); the main highlight of the program(instead of highlight of the program);work hard(instead of work hard); get back on track(instead of get back to square one);eat the dog(instead of eat the dog).

2. Phraseologisms should be used in their general linguistic meanings. Violating this rule results in errors like: The buildings are located so close to each other that they you can't spill water (turnover you can't spill water on anyone used in relation to close friends); At the ceremonial line, dedicated to the holiday last call, one of the ninth graders said: “We have gathered today to carry out on the last journey their older comrades(to see off on the last journey - “to say goodbye to the dead”).

3. The stylistic coloring of a phraseological unit must correspond to the context: colloquial and colloquial phrases should not be used in texts of book styles (cf. unsuccessful use colloquial phraseology in a sentence: The plenary session that opened the conference brought together a large number of participants, the hall was overcrowded - you can't hit it with a gun ). Use with caution book phraseological units in household colloquial speech(thus, it is stylistically unjustified to use a bookish biblical phrase in the phrase This gazebo in the center of the park - holy of holies youth of our neighborhood).

Violations of phraseological norms are often found in works fiction and act as one of the means of creating the writer’s individual style. In non-fiction speech one should adhere to regulatory use stable phrases, turning to phraseological dictionaries of the Russian language in cases of difficulties.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Define a language norm, list the characteristics of the norm.

2. What is a variant of the norm? What types of options do you know?

3. Describe the degree of normativity of linguistic units.

4. What types of norms are distinguished in accordance with the main levels of the language system and areas of use of linguistic means?

5. What do spelling norms regulate? Name the main groups of orthoepic norms.

6. Describe the main features of the pronunciation of foreign words.

7. Define the concept of accentological norm.

8. What are the features of Russian word stress?

9. Define the accentological variant. Name the types of accentological variants.

10. What do lexical norms regulate?

11. Name the types of lexical errors, give examples.

12. Define the concept of phraseological norm.

13. What rules must be followed when using phraseological units in speech?

Lectures No. 4, 5

GRAMMAR STANDARDS

3.1.1. Features of the language norm. 3.1.2. Three degrees of normativity. 3.1.3. Types of language norms. 3.1.4. Types of dictionaries.

3.1.1. FEATURES OF LANGUAGE NORM

The most important feature of a literary language is considered to be its normativity, which manifests itself in both written and oral form.

Literary language is opposed to vernacular, jargon and dialects due to its normativity. The norm of a literary language is a set of rules developed by social practice for the use of words, phrases, the formation of grammatical forms and constructions, a set of rules for pronunciation and spelling of words. The basis of the norm is always the choice of one option from several. The norm is the result of socio-historical selection

linguistic and speech units.

The characteristic features of the language norm are:

Relative stability;

Prevalence;

Common usage;

Mandatory for everyone;

Objectivity;

Historicity;

Conformity to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Relative stability and stability provide the necessary balance of the language system for a long time. Stable, stable norms help the literary language maintain its integrity in any period of time.

The prevalence of the norm is manifested in the fact that it applies throughout the entire territory where Russian is spoken. A linguistic norm is necessary so that people understand each other correctly, so that it is possible to distinguish an educated person from an uneducated one, so that the educated part of people with the most developed linguistic taste can influence the education of this taste in the rest. The norm, finally, contributes to the preservation of linguistic traditions. This requirement for a standard is becoming particularly relevant nowadays in the territory of the former Soviet Union.

Norms protect the literary language from dialectisms, jargon, argotisms, and vernacular, which allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

Norms (pronunciation, lexical, grammatical) are an objective phenomenon. They are supported by speech practice, which is constantly analyzed by scientists, and are enshrined in the relevant reference books and dictionaries of the Russian language. In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language S.I. Ozhegova, 95% is represented by the vocabulary of a literary language and only 5% by the vocabulary of a non-literary language. If in Ozhegov’s dictionary you come across the marks simple, obsolete, it means that these lexical units are not literary.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The constant development of language determines the change and dynamism of language norms. What was the norm 15-20 years ago may be a deviation from the norm today. Dictionaries and literature of the past give an idea of ​​the variability of the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words and their meaning: cabinet, strict, quiet, returned, weather, trains, beautiful pallet, black coffee, hall, hall. The word quarter means the fourth part of the year and part of the city, limited by streets with four sides, today in both meanings it is pronounced the same, with the emphasis on the last syllable, in contrast to recent times, when each of the meanings had its own accentological embodiment.

The normativity of a literary language also presupposes the correct use of etiquette formulas speech etiquette: a set of language formulas, rules used in various systems communication with a variety of intentions. For example: How are you? How are you doing? Thank you very much. Do not mention it. Nothing.

Thus, the norm reflects the natural processes occurring in the language. It does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”, but indicates the appropriateness of using various linguistic means in a specific communicative situation.

In general, the literary norm consolidates all the best of speech behavior representatives of society.

3.1.2. THREE DEGREES OF REGULATION

There are three degrees of normativity:

1) the norm of the first degree is strict, rigid, not allowing options: put, call, put, socks, stockings;

2) the norm of the second degree - less strict, allowing equal options; in the dictionary they are given with the mark and: penalty, average and male; blinds, neuter and plural; immoral and immoral;

3) the norm of the third degree, in which one option is the main (preferable), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable; in these cases, the second option is preceded by additional. (acceptable): can of sprat, extra. sprats; cup of tea, extra decomposition tea.

The norm of the first degree is usually called imperative; norms of the second and third degrees are called dispositive. Currently, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable due to events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science and technology.

In textbooks on the Russian language and speech culture, you can also find the terms senior and junior language norm. The older norm is understood as a norm that exists and is often already passing away, and the younger norm is a norm that is emerging and being consolidated at the present time.

3.1.3. TYPES OF LANGUAGE NORMS

In accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means, various types of norms are distinguished.

1. Orthoepic (Greek. correct speech) norms regulate the choice of phoneme variants (at[e]lie, D[e]kan), otherwise they can be called pronunciation norms.

2. Accentological norms regulate the choice of stress placement option (prettier, beetroot, call).

3. Word-formation norms regulate the choice of morphemes, their placement and combination in the word (na-bluder-a-tel, igr-ok, izbir-a-tel).

4. Lexical norms regulate: a) the use of words in the meanings that they have in modern Russian; b) choosing a variant of their lexical compatibility; c) choosing an option from a synonymous series; d) the appropriateness of their use in a particular speech situation (speech defects can be said, speech defects cannot be said).

5. Morphological norms regulate the choice of variant of the grammatical form of a word. First of all, these are the rules for determining grammatical gender individual nouns(strong coffee, excellent penalty and excellent penalty); norms for the formation and use of case forms of plural nouns (engineers, rectors, stockings, socks, shoulders). Morphological are the norms for the formation of case forms of adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms for the formation of comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs; norms of formation and use of verb forms (more beautiful, not more beautiful; clearer, no more clear; five hundred, not five hundred; put, don’t lie, etc.).

6. Syntactic norms regulate the choice of construction and use of phrases and sentences. Syntactic norms when creating a phrase include norms of management (thanks to common efforts, take care of children); When constructing a sentence, you should pay attention to the word order, follow the rules for using participial phrases, and the laws of construction complex sentence etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms are often combined into single grammatical norms.

7. Stylistic norms regulate the correspondence of language units to the style of presentation. So, in poetic work It is unlawful to use official business style clichés. The phrase is erroneous: For lack of a red rose, my life will be ruined; or Due to the absence of a red rose.

8. Spelling standards regulate the choice of spelling option (color, programmer, program, abstract).

9. Punctuation norms regulate the choice of punctuation option: The cuckoo crowed - this barley. The absence of a dash gives the phrase a different meaning.

The existence of options and changes in literary norms depend on external, social factors and internal reasons.

3.1.4. TYPES OF DICTIONARIES

Dictionaries are divided into two main types: encyclopedic and linguistic. Encyclopedic dictionaries describe concepts (things, realities, processes, phenomena), provide information about various events, for example: Nature - in a broad sense - all that exists, the whole world in the diversity of its forms; the concept of nature in this meaning is on a par with the concepts of matter, the universe, the universe.

Among the encyclopedic dictionaries we can name the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Literary encyclopedia, Children's Encyclopedia, Political dictionary, Philosophical Dictionary.

Linguistic dictionaries are divided into bilingual (multilingual) used in the study foreign languages, and monolingual.

IN linguistic dictionaries words and grammatical forms of words are described. IN this type dictionaries use the corresponding marking system. Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive marks: “not recommended.” (not recommended), "wrong." (incorrect), “rude.” (rudely), “bron.” (expletive language), etc.

Please note that when accessing dictionaries, you must use the latest editions.

Types of monolingual linguistic dictionaries

1. Explanatory dictionaries contain words with an explanation of their meanings, they also give grammatical and stylistic characteristics of the words: the four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by D.N. Ushakova; one-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I.

Ozhegova; the seventeen-volume academic “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language”; “School Etymological Dictionary” edited by F.P. Owl.

Example: Nature, s, f. - everything that exists in the universe, the organic and inorganic world.

It should be recalled that the well-known four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl includes vocabulary that was in use in the Russian language before 1863, therefore, despite the presence of more than 200,000 words in the dictionary, it lacks many words that appeared later.

2. Phraseological dictionaries systematize phraseological units of the Russian language, explain their meaning, and give their synonyms: “Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions» N.S. Ashukin and M.G. Ashukina; two-volume “Phraseological Dictionary of Literary Language” by A.I. Fedorov; “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by A.I. Molotkov; "Brief phrasebook Russian language" E.A. Bystrovoy, A.P. Okuneva and N.M. Shansky; “School phraseological dictionary of the Russian language” V.P. Zhukova and others.

Example: In no time. Razg. Unism. Very quickly, instantly, without delay. ~ In the blink of an eye, in one count, in one instant, in one minute, in one second, by one (single) Spirit.

More often with verb. owls type: decide, do, catch up, agree.

Well, that's a no-brainer. When you need it, tell me, I’ll explain everything to you in two counts (N. Nosov)...

3. Dictionaries of synonyms record words with the same meaning: “A short dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language” by V.N. Klyuevoy; “Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language” Z.E. Alexandrova; two-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” edited by A.P. Evgenieva; one-volume “Dictionary of synonyms. Reference publication" under the same editorship and other dictionaries.

Example: Find - find, dig up, open, find, fish out. These words are united by the meaning - to discover something unknown. The most common of them is to find. The word find indicates the result of an intentional search. To acquire belongs book style and is usually used in an abstract sense. Open - usually find something new or forgotten. Dig up is a colloquial-familiar word, used in the meaning - to find with difficulty. To catch up has the same meaning, but is ironic in nature.

4. Dictionaries of antonyms record words with opposite meanings: “Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” by L.A. Vvedenskaya; “Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” N.P. Kolesnikov, edited by N.M. Shansky; “Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” M.R. Lvov, edited by L.A. Novikova; " School dictionary antonyms of the Russian language”, etc.

Example: Natural - artificial: Now, having slept off and putting full shine on her radiant face, full of natural and artificial blush, the girl began the game (N. Tikhonov).

Natural - artificial; natural (obsolete) - artificial; natural - unnatural.

5. Dictionaries of homonyms record words that have the same sound (spelling), but have different meanings: “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” by O.S. Akhmanova; “Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language” N.P. Kolesnikov, edited by N.M. Shansky and others.

Example: Ambassador I soul. English ambassador, fr. ambassador, German Botschafter. Send, send, embassy, ​​embassy. Ambassador II inanimate, English salting, French. salage, facon de saler; German Einzalzen. Salt, salting. Good, tasty ~ cucumbers. Spicy sprat ~a.

6. Dictionaries of paronyms record words that are close, but not identical in sound, and have different meaning: “Difficult cases of using cognate words in the Russian language” Yu.A. Belchikova and M.S. Panyusheva; “Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language” N.P. Kolesnikova; “Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language” O.V. Vishnyakova and others.

Example: Secretive, adj. 1. Avoiding frankness, hiding his thoughts, feelings, intentions. Secretive man/ You are wonderful. Secretive. I’m sad, but to say why, it’s not there (I. Ehrenburg). 2. Undetectable or hidden. Secretive character. Secretive life / This pink bird lives in wooded mountainous places and leads a secretive lifestyle (V. Arsenyev). Hidden, adj. 1. Not clearly detected, hidden, secret. The Phantom Menace. The hidden machinations of enemies / She talked about Russian emigrants, and in her words I always felt a hidden smile of condescension towards people. 2. Inherent in someone or something, but outwardly invisible or not yet manifested. Hidden possibilities. Hidden illness / Green was ugly, but full of hidden charm (K. Paustovsky).

7. Word-formation dictionaries showing how, with the help of suffixes and prefixes, new words are formed from one stem: “Big word-formation dictionary of the Russian language,” compiled by N.A. Artemyeva.

Example: Faith - 1) faith - to believe - to believe - to assure - to believe - confidence - confident - self-confident - confidence - confident - about - confident - to assure - to be confident - to trust - to trust; 2) ver-ova-t - belief-ni/-e - believer;

3) easy-to-verify; 4) without faith; 5) faith-confession; 6) faith-apostate.

8. Grammar dictionaries that comprehensively reflect Russian inflection(declension and conjugation): “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A.A. Zaliznyak; "Dictionary unbending words» N.P. Kolesnikova; Dictionary-reference book “Management in the Russian language” D.E. Rosenthal.

Example: Happen, pr. incident and additional happened; gerundish happened and is outdated. happened. It was difficult for Andrey to understand everything that happened (Nikolaeva, Harvest). He could not understand the change that had happened to her. (Kalashnikov, The Last Retreat).

9. Dictionaries of difficulties containing accentological, pronunciation, word and formative difficulties: “Difficulties of word usage and variants of the norms of the Russian literary language. Dictionary-reference book" edited by K.S. Gorbachevich; “A brief dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language. For press workers" and dictionary-reference book for journalists “Difficulties of the Russian language” edited by L.I. Rakhmanova; “Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language” by D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova.

10. Syntactic dictionaries that give an idea of ​​the elementary units (syntaxemes) from which phrases and sentences are built in the Russian language: “ Educational dictionary combinability of words in the Russian language" edited by P.N. Denisov and V.V. Morkovkina; " Syntax dictionary: Repertoire of elementary units of Russian syntax”, in which nominal, verbal and adverbial phrases are given.

Example: verbs of “sorrowful feeling” with objective-causative syntax by + Sentence: sigh, cry (for mother), yearn (for work), grieve (for bride).

11. Etymological dictionaries contain etymological interpretation common words Russian language: “A short etymological dictionary of the Russian language” N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanova and T.V. Shanskaya, edited by S.G. Barkhudarov; " Etymological dictionary Russian language" G.P. Tsygaenko; four-volume “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by M.R. Vasmer translated from German.

Example: Amazement, from be amazed, dial. "to lose one's mind." In the XVII-XVIII centuries. astonishment = fainting. Out of my mind.

12. Spelling dictionaries record the norms of spelling words: “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language”, edited by S.G. Barkhudarova, I.F. Protchenko and L.I. Skvortsova.

Example: background, privilege,

13. Orthoepic dictionaries containing not only detailed information about pronunciation and stress, but also fixing grammatical forms: “Spelling dictionary of the Russian language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms”, edited. R.I. Avanesova; “Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers,” compiled by F.L. Ageenko and M.V. Zarva.

Example: Circle 1, -a, sentence. in, on a circle, pl. circles, -s. Get back to square one. Circle; part of a plane bounded by a circle, something having such a shape, a round object; closed chain of events. In a circle of moonlight; on lifebuoy, in a vicious circle, in a vicious circle, in a vicious circle.

Circle 2, -a, sentence. in a circle, plural circles, -s. Sleeping in a circle (finally sinking). A collection of people; sphere, area of ​​something. In the circle of friends; in aristocratic circles; in the usual circle of ideas; within the scope of responsibilities.

14. Onomastic dictionaries containing information about proper names: “Dictionary of Russian personal names” by N.A. Petrovsky.

Example: Elizabeth, -ы, f.; decomposition Lizaveta, s. Derivatives: Elizavetka, Veta, Lisa, Lilya, Lizunya, Lizukha, Lizusha, Lizura. [From Dr. - Heb. "ElTseba" - God is my oath, I swear to God].

“A short toponymic dictionary” by V.A. Nikonova.

Example: Arctic - northern. polar area of ​​the globe. Ancient Greek arctikos "northern" from arctos "bear", i.e. constellation Ursa Major- this is how the countries lying under this constellation began to be called. With the development of high latitudes, the name began to refer to the Far North.

15. Dictionaries of abbreviations: “Let’s speak correctly!” G.N. Sklyarevskaya and I.O. Tkacheva, where new and most common abbreviations in modern Russian are presented.

Example: VTEC [vtek], uncl., g. and (colloquial) VTEK, m. Medical and Labor Expert Commission. Conclusion of VTEC. I was at VTEK.

In addition to those listed, there are also dialect, frequency, reverse dictionaries, dictionaries of the language of writers and dictionaries of epithets.

Correctness is the most important sign of speech culture.

The correctness of speech is determined by compliance with the norms inherent in the literary language.

What is the norm? What are the standards? What makes them special? How are norms born? These are the questions that need to be answered.

Norm - rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language.

Norm is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. The standards differ:

Language norms - historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 30s and 40s the words were used graduate student And graduate to express the same concept: “A student completing a thesis.” Word graduate student was a colloquial version of the word diploma student In the literary norm of the 50-60s, there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate student now denotes a student, a student during the period of defending his thesis, receiving a diploma. In a word graduate began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, Diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition, Diploma winner of the International Vocal Competition).

The norm of using the word has also changed applicant. In the 30s and 40s applicants those who graduated were also named high school, and those who entered the university, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. In the post-war years, the word was assigned to those graduating from high school graduate, and the word applicant in this meaning has fallen out of use. Applicants began to be called those who take entrance exams at universities and technical schools.

The history of the word is interesting in this regard dialectical. In the 19th century it was formed from a noun dialect and meant “belonging to one dialect or another.” From a philosophical term dialectics also formed an adjective dialectical. Homonyms appeared in the language: dialectical (dialectical word) And dialectical (dialectical approach). Gradually the word dialectical in the meaning of “belonging to a particular dialect” is outdated and replaced by the word dialectal, and the word dialectical has the meaning “peculiar to dialectics; based on the laws of dialectics."

In one of the issues of Literaturnaya Gazeta, in an article about the correctness of speech, such a case was described. The lecturer rose to the podium and began to speak like this: “Some people spit on the norms of literary speech. They say, everything is allowed to us, our families say so, they will bury us that way. I shuddered when I heard this, but did not oppose...”

At first the audience was perplexed, then there was a murmur of indignation and, finally, there was laughter. The lecturer waited until the audience calmed down and said: “You are laughing in vain. I speak in the best literary language. In the language of the classics...” And he began to give quotes that contained “incorrect” words from his lecture, comparing them with the readings of dictionaries of that time. With this technique, the speaker demonstrated how the norm of language has changed over 100 years.

Not only lexical and accentological norms change, but also morphological norms. Let's take for example the ending of the nominative plural of masculine nouns:

vegetable garden - vegetable gardens, garden - gardens, table - tables, fence - fences, horn - horns, side - sides, bank - banks, eye - eyes.

As you can see, in the nominative plural case, nouns have the ending -s or -A. The presence of two endings is associated with the history of declination. The fact is that in the Old Russian language, in addition to the singular and plural, there was also a dual number, which was used in the case when we were talking about two objects: table(one), table(two), tables(some). Since the 13th century, this form begins to collapse and is gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, in the ending of the nominative plural of nouns denoting paired objects: horns, eyes, sleeves, banks, sides; secondly, the singular genitive form of nouns with numerals two (two tables, two houses, two fences) historically goes back to the form of the nominative case of the dual number. This is confirmed by the difference in emphasis: two hours and not an hour passed, in two rows and left the row.

After disappearing dual number along with the old ending -s Masculine nouns have a new ending in the nominative plural -A, which, as a younger one, began to spread and displace the endings.

So, in modern Russian language train the nominative plural has the ending -a, while in the 19th century the norm was -s.“Trains on the railway stop due to heavy snowfall for four days,” wrote N.G. Chernyshevsky in a letter to his father on February 8, 1855. But it's not always the end -A the old ending wins -s. For example, the word tractor was borrowed in the 20th century from English, in which tractor - suffixal derivative from Latin traho, trahere -"pull, drag." In the 3rd volume of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1940, only tractors, and ending with -a (tractor) considered colloquial. Twenty-three years later, volume 15 of the Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language was published. It contains both forms (tractors And tractor) are given as equal rights, and twenty years later the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1983) puts the ending -a in first place as more common. In other cases, the nominative plural form is -A remains outside the literary language and is classified as incorrect (engineer) or slang (driver).

If the old, original norm is designated by the letter A, and the competing version by the letter B, then the competition between them for a place in the literary language takes place in four stages and graphically looks like this:

At the first stage, the only form A dominates; its variant B is beyond the limits of the literary language and is considered incorrect. At the second stage, option B already penetrates into the literary language and is considered acceptable (label additional) and, depending on the degree of its distribution, qualifies as colloquial (litter colloquial) in relation to norm A or equal to it (litter AND). At the third stage, the senior norm A loses its dominant role, finally gives way to the junior norm B and becomes obsolete norms. At the fourth stage, B becomes the only norm of the literary language.

The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages.

Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.

For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” the accented variants of such words as normalize And standardize, label And label, thinking And thinking. Some variants of words are given with corresponding marks: cottage cheese and (colloquial) cottage cheese, contract and (simple) contract If we turn to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (M., 1997), then we can follow the fate of these options. Yes, words normalize And thinking become preferred and normalize And thinking are marked “extra.” (acceptable). From options label And label becomes the only correct one mark. Regarding cottage cheese And cottage cheese the norm has not changed. Here's an option agreement from the colloquial form has passed into the category of colloquial, has the mark “extra.” in the dictionary.

Shifts in standardization can be clearly seen in the example of the pronunciation of the combination - chn.

Let's present this in a table.

As you can see, out of 10 words, only two (on purpose, scrambled eggs) the pronunciation [sh] is preserved; in one case (bakery) preference is given to the pronunciation [shn], but [chn] is also allowed; in two cases, both pronunciations are considered equal (see. decent, decent), in the remaining five the pronunciation [chn] wins, while in a nutshell (diner, toy) it is considered the only correct one, and in three (everyday, creamy, apple) Pronunciation [shn] is also allowed.

Indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

■ standard 1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

■ level 2 norm - neutral, allows equivalent options;

■ norm 3 degrees - more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially intensified in recent decades.

These are the rules for the use of existing linguistic means in a specific historical period in the evolution of a literary language (a set of rules for spelling, grammar, pronunciation, word usage).

The concept of a language norm is usually interpreted as an example of the generally accepted uniform use of such elements of language as phrases, words, sentences.

The norms under consideration are not the result of the invention of philologists. They reflect a certain stage in the evolution of the literary language of an entire people. Language norms cannot simply be introduced or abolished; they cannot be reformed even administratively. The activities of linguists who study these norms are their identification, description and codification, as well as explanation and promotion.

Literary language and language norm

According to the interpretation of B. N. Golovin, the norm is the choice of a single linguistic sign among various functional variations, historically accepted within a certain language community. In his opinion, she is the regulator of the speech behavior of many people.

The literary and linguistic norm is a contradictory and complex phenomenon. There are different interpretations this concept in linguistic literature modern era. The main difficulty of definition is the presence of mutually exclusive features.

Distinctive features of the concept under consideration

It is customary to identify the following features of language norms in the literature:

1.Resilience (stability), thanks to which the literary language unites generations due to the fact that language norms ensure the continuity of linguistic and cultural traditions. However this sign is considered relative because the literary language is constantly evolving, while allowing changes in existing norms.

2. The degree of occurrence of the phenomenon under consideration. Still, it is worth keeping in mind that a significant level of usage of the corresponding language variant(as a fundamental feature in determining the literary and linguistic norm), as a rule, also characterizes certain speech errors. For example, in colloquial speech the definition of a language norm comes down to the fact that it is “frequently occurring.”

3.Compliance with an authoritative source(works of well-known writers). But do not forget that in works of art both the literary language and dialects and vernacular are reflected; therefore, when delineating norms, based on observation of texts of predominantly fiction, it is necessary to distinguish between the author’s speech and the language of the characters in the work.

The concept of a language norm (literary) is associated with internal laws the evolution of language, and on the other hand, it is determined by the purely cultural traditions of society (what it approves and protects, and what it fights and condemns).

Variety of language norms

The literary and linguistic norm is codified (gains official recognition and is subsequently described in reference books and dictionaries that have authority in society).

There are the following types of language norms:

The types of language norms presented above are considered to be basic.

Typology of language norms

It is customary to distinguish the following standards:

• oral and written forms of speech;
• oral only;
• only written.

The types of language norms that apply to both oral and written speech are as follows:

• lexical;
• stylistic;
• grammatical.

Special norms for exclusively written speech are:

• spelling standards;
• punctuation.

The following types of language norms are also distinguished:

• pronunciation;
• intonation;
• accents.

They apply only to oral speech.

Linguistic norms, which are common to both forms of speech, relate primarily to the construction of texts, linguistic content. Lexical ones (the set of word usage norms), on the contrary, are decisive in the matter of correct choice the right word among linguistic units that are quite close to it in form or meaning and its use in literary meaning.

Lexical language norms are displayed in dictionaries (explanatory, foreign words, terminological) and reference books. It is compliance of this kind norms are the key to accuracy and correctness of speech.

Violation of language norms leads to numerous lexical errors. Their number is constantly increasing. We can imagine the following examples of language norms that were violated:

Language options

They involve four stages:

1. The only form is dominant, and the alternative option is considered to be incorrect, since it is beyond the boundaries of the literary language (for example, in the 18th-19th centuries, the word “turner” is the only correct option).

2. Alternative option makes its way into the literary language as permissible (marked “additional”) and acts either colloquially (marked “colloquial”) or equal to the original norm (marked “and”). Hesitation regarding the word "turner" began to appear at the end of the 19th century and continued until the beginning of the 20th century.

3. The original norm is rapidly fading away and giving way to an alternative (competing) one; it acquires the status of obsolete (marked “obsolete.”). Thus, the above-mentioned word “turner,” according to Ushakov’s dictionary, is considered obsolete.

4. A competing norm as the only one within the literary language. In accordance with the Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language, the previously presented word “turner” is considered the only option (literary norm).

It is worth noting the fact that in the announcer's, teaching, stage, oratorical speech the only possible strict language norms are present. In everyday speech, the literary norm is freer.

The relationship between speech culture and language norms

Firstly, speech culture is mastery of the literary norms of a language in written and oral form, as well as the ability to correctly select and organize certain linguistic means in such a way that in a specific communication situation or in the process of observing its ethics is ensured greatest effect in achieving the intended communication objectives.

And secondly, this is an area of ​​linguistics that deals with the problems of speech normalization and develops recommendations regarding the skillful use of language.

Speech culture is divided into three components:

Language norms are hallmark literary language.

Standards of language in business style

They are the same as in the literary language, namely:

• the word must be used according to its lexical meaning;
• taking into account the stylistic coloring;
• according to lexical compatibility.

These are lexical language norms of the Russian language within the framework of business style.

For this style, compliance with the qualities that determine the effectiveness of business communication (literacy) is extremely important. This quality also implies knowledge of existing rules of word usage, sentence patterns, grammatical compatibility, and the ability to distinguish between the areas of application of the language.

Currently, the Russian language is spoken by many variant forms, some of which are used within the framework of bookish and written speech styles, and some - in colloquial everyday life. IN business style Forms of special codified written speech are used due to the fact that only their compliance ensures the accuracy and correctness of the transmission of information.

This may include:

• incorrect choice of word form;
• a number of violations regarding the structure of phrases and sentences;
• The most common mistake is the use in writing of incompatible colloquial forms of plural nouns that end in -а / -я, instead of the normative ones in -и/-ы. Examples are presented in the table below.

It is worth remembering that the following nouns have a zero-ending form:

• paired items (shoes, stockings, boots, but socks);
• names of nationalities and territorial affiliations (Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Kyivans, Armenians, British, southerners);
• military groups (cadets, partisans, soldiers);
• units of measurement (volts, arshins, roentgens, amperes, watts, microns, but grams, kilograms).

These are the grammatical language norms of Russian speech.

Sources of language norms

There are at least five of them:

The role of the norms under consideration

They help preserve the literary language’s integrity and general intelligibility. The rules protect him from dialect speech, professional and social argot, vernacular. This is what makes it possible for the literary language to realize its main function- cultural.

The norm depends on the conditions within which speech is realized. Relevant in everyday communication linguistic means may be unacceptable in official business contexts. The norm does not differentiate linguistic means according to the criteria “good - bad”, but clarifies their expediency (communicative).

The norms under consideration are a so-called historical phenomenon. Their change is due to the continuous development of language. The norms of the last century may now be deviations. For example, in the 30-40s. Words such as diploma student and diploma student (a student who completes a thesis work) were considered identical. At that time, the word "diplomatnik" was a colloquial version of the word "diplomat". Within the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a division of the meaning of the presented words: the diploma holder is a student during the period of defending his diploma, and the diploma holder is the winner of competitions, competitions, shows marked with a diploma (for example, a diploma holder of the International Vocal Show).

Also in the 30-40s. the word “applicant” was used to describe individuals who graduated from school or entered a university. Currently, those graduating from high school are called graduates, and applicant is no longer used in this meaning. They call people who take entrance exams to technical schools and universities.

Such norms as pronunciation are characteristic exclusively of oral speech. But not everything that is characteristic of oral speech can be attributed to pronunciation. Intonation - enough important tool expressiveness, giving emotional coloring speech and diction are not pronunciation.

As for stress, it relates to oral speech, however, despite the fact that it is a sign of a word or grammatical form, it still belongs to grammar and vocabulary, and is not a characteristic of pronunciation in its essence.

So, orthoepy indicates the proper pronunciation of certain sounds in appropriate phonetic positions and in combination with other sounds, and even in some grammar groups words and forms or in individual words, provided that they have their own pronunciation features.

Due to the fact that language is a means human communication, it needs unification of oral and written format. Just like spelling errors, incorrect pronunciation pays attention to speech from her outside, which acts as an obstacle during linguistic communication. Since orthoepy is one of the aspects of speech culture, it has the task of helping to raise the pronunciation culture of our language.

The conscious cultivation of literary pronunciation on the radio, in cinema, theater, and school is very significant in relation to the mastery of the literary language by the multi-million masses.

Vocabulary norms are those norms that determine the correct choice of a suitable word, the appropriateness of its use within the framework of a generally known meaning and in combinations considered generally accepted. The exceptional importance of their observance is determined by both cultural factors and the need for mutual understanding between people.

An essential factor determining the significance of the concept of norms for linguistics is the assessment of the possibilities of its application in various types of linguistic research work.

Today, the following aspects and areas of research are identified within the framework of which the concept under consideration can become productive:

1. Study of the nature of the functioning and implementation of various kinds of language structures (including the establishment of their productivity, distribution across various functional areas of the language).
2. Studying historical aspect changes in language over relatively short periods of time (“microhistory”), when both minor shifts in the structure of the language and significant changes in its functioning and implementation are revealed.

Degrees of normativity

1. A rigid, strict degree that does not allow alternative options.
2. Neutral, allowing equivalent options.
3. A more flexible degree that allows the use of colloquial or outdated forms.

Language norm(literary norm) - these are the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language, that is, the rules of pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. Signs of normality literary language: relative stability, common usage, universally binding, compliance with use, tradition and capabilities of the language system.

Language norm- rules of pronunciation, word usage, and the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in the social and linguistic practice of educated people (Russian language. Encyclopedia. M., 1997).

Language norms are a phenomenon historical, they change. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages. Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language. For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” the accented variants of such words as normalize And normalize, thinking And thinking. Some variants of words are given with corresponding marks: creationOG and (colloquial) TVOhorn, contract and (simple) contract If we turn to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1983), then we can follow the fate of these options. Yes, words normalize And thinking become preferred and normalize And thinking are marked “extra.” (acceptable). Regarding cottage cheese And cottage cheese the norm has not changed. Here's an option agreement from the colloquial form has passed into the category of colloquial, has the mark “extra.” in the dictionary.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research linguistic scientists.

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to say about three degrees of normativity:

The first degree norm is strict, rigid, not allowing options;

Norm P degree is neutral, allowing equivalent options;

The III degree norm is more flexible and allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, changes in the social structure determine the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language, contribute to the preservation of linguistic tradition, cultural heritage past. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, vernacular. This allows the literary language to remain holistic, generally understandable, and fulfill its main function - cultural.

Based on the norms adopted and in force at any stage of the existence of a literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what the trends are further development norms of literary language.

Stress norms. The features and functions of stress are studied by a branch of linguistics called accentology(from lat.- emphasis).

Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages ​​in which stress is assigned to a specific syllable. For example, in English the first syllable is stressed, in Polish - the penultimate one, in Armenian, French - the last. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterolocal. Let's compare the stress in the words: compass, mining, document, medicine. In these words, the stress falls on the first, second, third, fourth syllables respectively. Its diversity makes stress in the Russian language an individual feature of each individual word.

In addition, stress in Russian can be movable or fixed. If in different forms of a word the stress falls on the same part, then such stress is stationary (take care, take care, take care, take care, take care, take care - the accent is assigned to the ending). An accent that changes its place in different forms of the same word is called movable. (right, right, right; I can, you can, they can).

Most of the words in the Russian language have motionless emphasis.

Features of Russian accent:

The stress in the Russian language is free, variable;

It can be mobile or immobile.

Stress is of great importance in the Russian language and fulfills various functions. The semantics of a word depends on stress (cotton - cotton, carnations - carnations). It indicates the grammatical form (hands - nominative plural, and hands - genitive singular). Finally, stress helps differentiate between the meaning of words and their forms: protein - genitive case of the word b e lka, A b e lok - nominative case of a word that names a component of an egg or part of an eye.

Variability and mobility of stress often leads to speech errors(instead of n A chal, p O nyalpronounce started, understood).

The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases because for some words there are variations in stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect, for example, correct: kitchen, toolsent, moveAsacrament wrong: kitchen, toolsatcop, intercessorAproperty.

A number of accent options are associated with professional sphere consumption. There are words in which a specific emphasis is traditionally accepted only in a narrowly professional environment; in any other environment it is perceived as a mistake. For example:

epilepsy from doctors epilepsyAndI,

ToOMPA the sailors have a computer A With .

IN public speaking, business communication, and everyday speech, deviations from the norms of the literary language are quite often observed. So, some people think that it is necessary to speak means of production, But cash, passed two quarter, but the second quarter this year. Words funds And quarter Regardless of meaning, they have only one accent.

Errors in stress can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. For example, one of the TV shows showed works by Spanish artists. They showed a picture that depicted a river bank, a tree with a rich crown, through the leaves of which one could see blue sky and greens of other plants. A monk was sitting under a tree. The host of the program said: “This picture is called “The Hermit in the Desert.” Anyone who watched the program was probably surprised and thought: what kind of desert is this? The thing is that the picture does not depict a desert, but a secluded, deserted place where a hermit lives, which is called natdamn or natshame. An incorrectly pronounced word created the impression that the title of the painting did not correspond to its content.

In order to avoid mistakes in placing emphasis, you should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another of them can be used. To do this, it is recommended to refer to special dictionaries and reference books.

Orthoepic norms. Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special branch of linguistics - orthoepy. . Orthoepy is also called a set of rules of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines pronunciation individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or individual words.

Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Spelling errors always interfere with the perception of the content of speech: the listener’s attention is distracted by various incorrect pronunciations and the statement is not perceived in its entirety and with sufficient attention. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the communication process. That's why social role correct pronunciation is very great, especially at the present time in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses.

Let's consider basic rules of literary pronunciation, which must be adhered to.

Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose clarity and clarity of sound; they are pronounced with weakened articulation. It's called law of reduction.

The vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: ravine -[a] enemy, autonomy -[a]vt[a]nomia, milk - m[a]l[a]ko.

In the remaining unstressed syllables, that is, in all unstressed syllables except the first pre-stressed one, in place of the letter it after hard consonants, a very short (reduced) unclear sound is pronounced, which different positions ranges from a pronunciation close to [s] to a pronunciation close to [a]. Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the letter [ъ]. For example: head- g[a]lova, side - side, Expensive - dear, city ​​- city[ъ]d, watchman - store [b]zh.

Letters i, e V pre-stressed syllable denotes the sound intermediate between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is indicated by the sign [and e]: nickel - p[i e]so, feather - p[i e]ro. The vowel [and] after a hard consonant, preposition, or when pronouncing a word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical school - medical institute, from spark - from spark, laughter And grief - laughter[s] grief. If there is a pause, [i] does not transform into [s]: laughter And grief.

The absence of vowel reduction interferes with the normal perception of speech, since it reflects not the literary norm, but dialectal features. So, for example, the letter-by-letter (unreduced) pronunciation of the word [milk] is perceived by us as a voicing, and the replacement of unstressed vowels with [a] without reduction - [malako] - as a strong akan.

Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are deafening and assimilation.

In Russian speech, there is a mandatory deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word. We pronounce bread[n] - bread, sa[t] - garden, smo[k] - smog, love[f"] - Love etc. This stun is one of characteristic features Russian literary speech. It is necessary to take into account that the consonant [g] at the end of a word always turns into a paired dull sound [k]: le[k] - lay down, poro[k] - threshold etc. Pronouncing the sound [x] in this case is unacceptable as a dialect. The exception is the word God - Bo[x].

In the position before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v], the sound [g] is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant. It is most stable in the word [g]lord.

[G] is pronounced like [x] in combination хх Гк and Гч: le[хк"]й - easy, le[hk]o - easily.

In combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants (as well as voiceless and voiced), the first of them is likened to the second.

You should pay attention to the combination chn, since mistakes are often made when pronouncing it. There is a fluctuation in the pronunciation of words with this combination, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation.

According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination chn is usually pronounced [chn], this especially applies to words of book origin (greedy, careless) as well as to words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing).

Pronunciation [shn] instead of spelling chn currently required in female middle names on -ichna: Ilyini[sh]a, Lukini[sh]a, Fomini[sh]a, and is also preserved in individual words: horse[sh]o, pere[shya]itsa, pra-che[sh]aya, empty[sh]y , starling [sh]ik, eggs [psh]itsa, etc.

Some words with combination -chn in accordance with the norm, they are pronounced in two ways: order [shn]o and order [chn]o. In some cases, different pronunciation of the combination chn serves for semantic differentiation of words: heartbeat - heartfelt friend.

Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern spelling norms and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features. For example, sometimes the pronunciation of the sound [o] is preserved in unstressed syllables (m[o]del, [o]asis, [o]tel) and hard consonants before the front vowel [e] (s[te]nd, ko[de] ks, cough [ne]). In most borrowed words, the consonants before [e] are softened: ka[t"]et, pa[t"]efon, faculty[t"]et, mu[z"]ey, [r"]ector, pio[n" ]er. The back-lingual consonants are always softened before [e]: pa[k"]et, [k"]egli, s[x"]ema, ba[g"]et.

A description of orthoepic norms can be found in the literature on speech culture, in special linguistic studies, for example, in the book by R.I. Avanesova "Russian" literary pronunciation”, as well as in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian literary language, in particular, in the one-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova.

Morphological norms. Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expression grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.-

Morphological norms - rules for using morphological norms of different parts of speech.

The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the options may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, sphere of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express an idea, diversify your speech, and indicates speech culture speaker.

The largest group consists of options, the use of which is limited to the functional style or genre of speech. Thus, in colloquial speech there are often forms genitive case plural orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes; from her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and spoken speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm.

Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to denote varieties and varieties of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, oil, salt, marbles. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use.

There are many morphological variants in the Russian language that are considered identical and equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in the spring - in the spring, doors - doors.

In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language: rail, A rail wrong, shoe, A shoes And shoe wrong.

In the Russian language there are many masculine and feminine words to designate people by their position or profession. With nouns denoting a position, profession, rank, title, difficulties arising in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words. What are they?

Firstly, in the Russian language there are names of the masculine gender and there are no parallels for them in the feminine gender, or (much less often) there are only names of the feminine gender. For example: rector, businessman, financier, parliamentarian and laundress, nanny, milliner, manicurist, midwife, dowry worker, lacemaker, seamstress-minder.

Secondly, there are names of both masculine and feminine gender, both of them are neutral. For example: athlete - athlete, poet - poetess.

Thirdly, both forms are formed (both masculine and feminine), but feminine words differ in meaning or stylistic coloring. Yes, words professor, Doctor's wife has the meaning of "professor's wife", "doctor's wife" and a colloquial connotation, and as job titles they become colloquial. Generic parallels cashier, watchman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, watchwoman, usherette qualify as conversational, and doctor - like a vernacular.

Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language. Such cases are increasing. According to scientists, the number of names that do not have a female gender parallel is increasing every year, for example: cosmophysicist, TV commentator, TV reporter, bionicist, cyberneticist etc., while this position can be held by a woman.

What way out do writers and speakers find?

As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts, business correspondence More and more often, a syntactic indication of the gender of the person being called is used, when with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable and do not violate the norms of the literary language.

The use of masculine nouns that do not have a word-formation parallel of the feminine gender as names for women has led to increased fluctuations in the forms of agreement. The following options became possible: young physicist Yakovleva - young physicist Yakovleva.

In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech” regarding this use of definitions it is said: “In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the defined noun is accepted: outstanding mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya; the new Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi."

Most common grammatical errors associated with the use of gender of nouns. You may hear incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, large callus, registered parcel. But nouns rail, shampoo - masculine, and corn, parcel - feminine, so you should say: railway rail, French shampoo, large callus, registered parcel post.

Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions in speech. Thus, the difference in semantic and stylistic shades between synonymous constructions with prepositions is not always taken into account because of And thanks to. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore, it is used to indicate the cause that causes the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to proper treatment. If there is a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks to and indicating a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: Didn't come to work due to illness. In this case it is correct to say - due to illness.

Prepositions thanks, despite, according to, towards By modern standards are used only with the dative case.

Syntactic norms. Sometimes writers don't consider word order and create sentences that have two meanings. For example, how to understand the phrase Was the owner of the house asleep? Are we talking about the sleeping owner of the house, or about where the owner slept? In a sentence There is no such term in ancient documents combination this kind may refer to a combination ancient documents or by the way term.